Issue

Vol. 18 (2026)

An Integrated Flexible Bioelectrical and Biochemical Monitoring System Based on Spindle-Structured Directional Sweat-Pumping Nanomesh

https://doi.org/10.1007/s40820-026-02115-w
Jingzhi Wu
School of Biomedical Engineering, Shenzhen Campus of Sun Yat-Sen University, No. 66, Gongchang Road, Guangming District, Shenzhen 518107, Guangdong, People’s Republic of China
Rongkuan Han
School of Biomedical Engineering, Shenzhen Campus of Sun Yat-Sen University, No. 66, Gongchang Road, Guangming District, Shenzhen 518107, Guangdong, People’s Republic of China
Jianfeng Ma
School of Biomedical Engineering, Shenzhen Campus of Sun Yat-Sen University, No. 66, Gongchang Road, Guangming District, Shenzhen 518107, Guangdong, People’s Republic of China
Jinyi Gong
School of Biomedical Engineering, Shenzhen Campus of Sun Yat-Sen University, No. 66, Gongchang Road, Guangming District, Shenzhen 518107, Guangdong, People’s Republic of China
Tianxin Guan
School of Integrated Circuits, Shenzhen Campus of Sun Yat-Sen University, No. 66, Gongchang Road, Guangming District, Shenzhen 518107, Guangdong, People’s Republic of China
Peiyan Dong
School of Biomedical Engineering, Shenzhen Campus of Sun Yat-Sen University, No. 66, Gongchang Road, Guangming District, Shenzhen 518107, Guangdong, People’s Republic of China
Hao Tang
School of Biomedical Engineering, Shenzhen Campus of Sun Yat-Sen University, No. 66, Gongchang Road, Guangming District, Shenzhen 518107, Guangdong, People’s Republic of China
Haidong Liu
School of Biomedical Engineering, Shenzhen Campus of Sun Yat-Sen University, No. 66, Gongchang Road, Guangming District, Shenzhen 518107, Guangdong, People’s Republic of China
Jinan Luo
School of Biomedical Engineering, Shenzhen Campus of Sun Yat-Sen University, No. 66, Gongchang Road, Guangming District, Shenzhen 518107, Guangdong, People’s Republic of China
Chang Liu
School of Biomedical Engineering, Shenzhen Campus of Sun Yat-Sen University, No. 66, Gongchang Road, Guangming District, Shenzhen 518107, Guangdong, People’s Republic of China
Yuanfang Li
School of Biomedical Engineering, Shenzhen Campus of Sun Yat-Sen University, No. 66, Gongchang Road, Guangming District, Shenzhen 518107, Guangdong, People’s Republic of China
Degong Zeng
School of Biomedical Engineering, Shenzhen Campus of Sun Yat-Sen University, No. 66, Gongchang Road, Guangming District, Shenzhen 518107, Guangdong, People’s Republic of China
Chuting Liu
School of Biomedical Engineering, Shenzhen Campus of Sun Yat-Sen University, No. 66, Gongchang Road, Guangming District, Shenzhen 518107, Guangdong, People’s Republic of China
Zhikang Deng
School of Biomedical Engineering, Shenzhen Campus of Sun Yat-Sen University, No. 66, Gongchang Road, Guangming District, Shenzhen 518107, Guangdong, People’s Republic of China
Xinyi Qu
School of Biomedical Engineering, Shenzhen Campus of Sun Yat-Sen University, No. 66, Gongchang Road, Guangming District, Shenzhen 518107, Guangdong, People’s Republic of China
Lvjie Chen
School of Biomedical Engineering, Shenzhen Campus of Sun Yat-Sen University, No. 66, Gongchang Road, Guangming District, Shenzhen 518107, Guangdong, People’s Republic of China
Tian‑Ling Ren
School of Integrated Circuits and Beijing National Research Center for Information Science and Technology (BNRist), Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, People’s Republic of China
Jianhua Zhou
School of Biomedical Engineering, Shenzhen Campus of Sun Yat-Sen University, No. 66, Gongchang Road, Guangming District, Shenzhen 518107, Guangdong, People’s Republic of China
Yancong Qiao
School of Biomedical Engineering, Shenzhen Campus of Sun Yat-Sen University, No. 66, Gongchang Road, Guangming District, Shenzhen 518107, Guangdong, People’s Republic of China

Corresponding Author: Yancong Qiao

qiaoyc3@mail.sysu.edu.cn

Nano-Micro Letters, Vol. 18 (2026), Article Number: 265

Abstract

Wearable epidermal monitoring holds significant importance in health assessment. However, current electronic skins are limited by poor conformability caused by sweat accumulation, discomfort from low breathability and single signal, making long-term, stable, and high-throughput signal recording much challenging. In this study, a spindle-structured directional sweat-pumping nanomesh (SDSN) is developed via electrospinning. By combining multiple asymmetries, including wettability, pore size, and spindle-knots structure, the SDSN establishes synergistic forces that enable unidirectional liquid transport at a rate over 1000 times faster than human sweat production during exercise. To demonstrate the advantages in fluid guidance, a dual-architecture and dual-perspective comparative model framework is constructed. The introduction of Au nanomesh as electrodes allows the Au nanomesh electrode to simultaneously monitor electrochemical and electrophysiological signals, while maintaining excellent skin conformability and motion stability. Additionally, a nanomesh-encapsulated flexible circuit is developed capable of continuous wireless monitoring. This system shows potential for correlation analysis of metabolic energy output and cardiovascular response, making it an ideal tool for health management during intense physical labor and exercise.


Highlights:
1 Built via controlled electrospinning, the nanomesh integrates wettability and structural gradients, enabling ultrafast unidirectional liquid transport at speeds up to 4.00 mL min−1 cm−2.
2 An Au nanomesh electrode with high breathability and moisture permeability is designed, offering superior conformability and stretchability for stable on-skin monitoring during motion, along with excellent skin compatibility.
3 The system enables wireless and continuous electrochemical and electrophysiological monitoring, combining sweat biomarkers and electrocardiogram signals for comprehensive health analysis.

Keywords

Permeable electronics Nanomesh Multimodal wearable sensors Sweat unidirectional transportation Spindle structure
Wu, Jingzhi, Rongkuan Han, Jianfeng Ma, Jinyi Gong, Tianxin Guan, Peiyan Dong, Hao Tang, Haidong Liu, Jinan Luo, Chang Liu, Yuanfang Li, Degong Zeng, Chuting Liu, Zhikang Deng, Xinyi Qu, Lvjie Chen, Tian‑Ling Ren, Jianhua Zhou, and Yancong Qiao. 2026. “An Integrated Flexible Bioelectrical and Biochemical Monitoring System Based on Spindle-Structured Directional Sweat-Pumping Nanomesh”. Nano-Micro Letters 18 (March):265. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40820-026-02115-w.
Download Citation
Endnote/Zotero/Mendeley (RIS)
BibTeX
References
  1. Q. Huang, Z. Zheng, Pathway to developing permeable electronics. ACS Nano 16(10), 15537–15544 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1021/acsnano.2c08091
  2. L. Wei, Z. Li, Z. Dai, L. Ding, H. Wei et al., Wearable sweat management technologies. Adv. Mater. Technol. 9(7), 2301812 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1002/admt.202301812
  3. B. Zhong, K. Jiang, L. Wang, G. Shen, Wearable sweat loss measuring devices: from the role of sweat loss to advanced mechanisms and designs. Adv. Sci. 9(1), 2103257 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1002/advs.202103257
  4. F. Chen, Q. Huang, Z. Zheng, Permeable conductors for wearable and on-skin electronics. Small Struct. 3(1), 2100135 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1002/sstr.202100135
  5. H. Yeon, H. Lee, Y. Kim, D. Lee, Y. Lee et al., Long-term reliable physical health monitoring by sweat pore-inspired perforated electronic skins. Sci. Adv. 7(27), eabg8459 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.abg8459
  6. Z. Geng, J. Wang, G. Cao, C. Tan, L. Li et al., Differential impact of heat and hypoxia on dynamic oxygen uptake and deoxyhemoglobin parameters during incremental exhaustive exercise. Front. Physiol. 14, 1247659 (2024). https://doi.org/10.3389/fphys.2023.1247659
  7. P. Alkemade, J.Q. DE Korte, C.C.W.G. Bongers, H.A.M. Daanen, M.T.E. Hopman et al., Humid heat equally impairs maximal exercise performance in elite para-athletes and able-bodied athletes. Med. Sci. Sports Exerc. 55(10), 1835–1844 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1249/MSS.0000000000003222
  8. T. Cui, Y. Qiao, D. Li, X. Huang, L. Yang et al., Multifunctional, breathable MXene-PU mesh electronic skin for wearable intelligent 12-lead ECG monitoring system. Chem. Eng. J. 455, 140690 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2022.140690
  9. J. Yang, Z. Zhang, P. Zhou, Y. Zhang, Y. Liu et al., Toward a new generation of permeable skin electronics. Nanoscale 15(7), 3051–3078 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1039/d2nr06236d
  10. W. Jeong, Y. Park, G. Gwon, J. Song, S. Yoo et al., All-organic, solution-processed, extremely conformal, mechanically biocompatible, and breathable epidermal electrodes. ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 13(4), 5660–5667 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1021/acsami.0c22397
  11. Q. Li, G. Chen, Y. Cui, S. Ji, Z. Liu et al., Highly thermal-wet comfortable and conformal silk-based electrodes for on-skin sensors with sweat tolerance. ACS Nano 15(6), 9955–9966 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1021/acsnano.1c01431
  12. D. Song, G. Ye, Y. Zhao, Y. Zhang, X. Hou et al., An all-in-one, bioderived, air-permeable, and sweat-stable MXene epidermal electrode for muscle theranostics. ACS Nano 16(10), 17168–17178 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1021/acsnano.2c07646
  13. Z. Zhang, J. Yang, H. Wang, C. Wang, Y. Gu et al., A 10-micrometer-thick nanomesh-reinforced gas-permeable hydrogel skin sensor for long-term electrophysiological monitoring. Sci. Adv. 10(2), eadj5389 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.adj5389
  14. A. Miyamoto, S. Lee, N.F. Cooray, S. Lee, M. Mori et al., Inflammation-free, gas-permeable, lightweight, stretchable on-skin electronics with nanomeshes. Nat. Nanotechnol. 12(9), 907–913 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1038/nnano.2017.125
  15. H. Liu, C. Liu, J. Luo, H. Tang, Y. Li et al., Micromesh reinforced strain sensor with high stretchability and stability for full-range and periodic human motions monitoring. InfoMat 6(4), e12511 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1002/inf2.12511
  16. S. Lee, S. Franklin, F.A. Hassani, T. Yokota, M.O.G. Nayeem et al., Nanomesh pressure sensor for monitoring finger manipulation without sensory interference. Science 370(6519), 966–970 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1126/science.abc9735
  17. C. Zhi, S. Shi, S. Zhang, Y. Si, J. Yang et al., Bioinspired all-fibrous directional moisture-wicking electronic skins for biomechanical energy harvesting and all-range health sensing. Nano-Micro Lett. 15(1), 60 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s40820-023-01028-2
  18. Z. Ma, Q. Huang, Q. Xu, Q. Zhuang, X. Zhao et al., Permeable superelastic liquid-metal fibre mat enables biocompatible and monolithic stretchable electronics. Nat. Mater. 20(6), 859–868 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41563-020-00902-3
  19. Q. Zhuang, K. Yao, C. Zhang, X. Song, J. Zhou et al., Permeable, three-dimensional integrated electronic skins with stretchable hybrid liquid metal solders. Nat. Electron. 7(7), 598–609 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41928-024-01189-x
  20. Y. Qiao, G. Gou, H. Shuai, F. Han, H. Liu et al., Electromyogram-strain synergetic intelligent artificial throat. Chem. Eng. J. 449, 137741 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2022.137741
  21. M. Chung, W.H. Skinner, C. Robert, C.J. Campbell, R.M. Rossi et al., Fabrication of a wearable flexible sweat pH sensor based on SERS-active Au/TPU electrospun nanofibers. ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 13(43), 51504–51518 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1021/acsami.1c15238
  22. X. Li, B. Dai, L. Wang, X. Yang, T. Xu et al., Radiative cooling and anisotropic wettability in E-textile for comfortable biofluid monitoring. Biosens. Bioelectron. 237, 115434 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bios.2023.115434
  23. B. Su, L. Chen, R. Liu, G. Zhong, Y. Ji et al., Fully integrated Janus textile with enhanced skin comfortability for autonomous sweat extraction and analysis. Anal. Chem. 97(40), 22099–22107 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.analchem.5c03820
  24. B. Zhang, J. Li, J. Zhou, L. Chow, G. Zhao et al., A three-dimensional liquid diode for soft, integrated permeable electronics. Nature 628(8006), 84–92 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-024-07161-1
  25. C. Wang, K. Fan, E. Shirzaei Sani, J.A. Lasalde-Ramírez, W. Heng et al., A microfluidic wearable device for wound exudate management and analysis in human chronic wounds. Sci. Transl. Med. 17(795), eadt0882 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1126/scitranslmed.adt0882
  26. Q. Wang, F. Yang, Z. Guo, The intrigue of directional water collection interface: mechanisms and strategies. J. Mater. Chem. A 9(40), 22729–22758 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1039/d1ta06182h
  27. G. Mei, Z. Guo, Special wettability materials inspired by multiorganisms for fog collection. Adv. Mater. Interfaces 9(14), 2102484 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1002/admi.202102484
  28. H. Zhu, S. Cai, J. Zhou, S. Li, D. Wang et al., Integration of water collection and purification on Cactus- and beetle-inspired eco-friendly superwettable materials. Water Res. 206, 117759 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2021.117759
  29. D. Li, W. Liu, T. Peng, Y. Liu, L. Zhong et al., Janus textile: advancing wearable technology for autonomous sweat management and beyond. Small 21(13), 2409730 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1002/smll.202409730
  30. L. Yan, X. Yang, Y. Zhang, Y. Wu, Z. Cheng et al., Porous Janus materials with unique asymmetries and functionality. Mater. Today 51, 626–647 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mattod.2021.07.001
  31. X. Li, M. Weng, T. Liu, K. Yu, S. Zhang et al., Bioinspired heterogeneous wettability triboelectric sensors for sweat collection and monitoring. Adv. Mater. 38(1), e09920 (2026). https://doi.org/10.1002/adma.202509920
  32. F. Guo, Z. Ren, S. Wang, Y. Xie, J. Pan et al., Recent progress of electrospun nanofiber-based composite materials for monitoring physical, physiological, and body fluid signals. Nano-Micro Lett. 17(1), 302 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1007/s40820-025-01804-2
  33. Y. Zheng, H. Bai, Z. Huang, X. Tian, F.-Q. Nie et al., Directional water collection on wetted spider silk. Nature 463(7281), 640–643 (2010). https://doi.org/10.1038/nature08729
  34. H. Bai, J. Ju, Y. Zheng, L. Jiang, Functional fibers with unique wettability inspired by spider silks. Adv. Mater. 24(20), 2786–2791 (2012). https://doi.org/10.1002/adma.201200289
  35. J. Li, S. Li, J. Huang, A.Q. Khan, B. An et al., Spider silk-inspired artificial fibers. Adv. Sci. 9(5), 2103965 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1002/advs.202103965
  36. H. Chen, T. Ran, Y. Gan, J. Zhou, Y. Zhang et al., Ultrafast water harvesting and transport in hierarchical microchannels. Nat. Mater. 17(10), 935–942 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41563-018-0171-9
  37. C.H. Moseid, G. Myklebust, M.W. Fagerland, B. Clarsen, R. Bahr, The prevalence and severity of health problems in youth elite sports: a 6-month prospective cohort study of 320 athletes. Scand. J. Med. Sci. Phys. 28(4), 1412–1423 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1111/sms.13047
  38. W.J. Meerding, W. IJzelenberg, M.A. Koopmanschap, J.L. Severens, A. Burdorf, Health problems lead to considerable productivity loss at work among workers with high physical load jobs. J. Clin. Epidemiol. 58(5), 517–523 (2005). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclinepi.2004.06.016
  39. S. Imani, A.J. Bandodkar, A.M. Vinu Mohan, R. Kumar, S. Yu et al., A wearable chemical-electrophysiological hybrid biosensing system for real-time health and fitness monitoring. Nat. Commun. 7, 11650 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1038/ncomms11650
  40. K. Mahato, T. Saha, S. Ding, S.S. Sandhu, A.-Y. Chang et al., Hybrid multimodal wearable sensors for comprehensive health monitoring. Nat. Electron. 7(9), 735–750 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41928-024-01247-4
  41. C. Xu, Y. Song, J.R. Sempionatto, S.A. Solomon, Y. Yu et al., A physicochemical-sensing electronic skin for stress response monitoring. Nat. Electron. 7(2), 168–179 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41928-023-01116-6
  42. D. Ji, Y. Lin, X. Guo, B. Ramasubramanian, R. Wang et al., Electrospinning of nanofibres. Nat. Rev. Meth. Primers 4, 1 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1038/s43586-023-00278-z
  43. C.J. Luo, S.D. Stoyanov, E. Stride, E. Pelan, M. Edirisinghe, Electrospinning versus fibre production methods: from specifics to technological convergence. Chem. Soc. Rev. 41(13), 4708–4735 (2012). https://doi.org/10.1039/c2cs35083a
  44. M. Ahmadi Bonakdar, D. Rodrigue, Electrospinning: processes, structures, and materials. Macromol 4(1), 58–103 (2024). https://doi.org/10.3390/macromol4010004
  45. J. Xue, T. Wu, Y. Dai, Y. Xia, Electrospinning and electrospun nanofibers: methods, materials, and applications. Chem. Rev. 119(8), 5298–5415 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.chemrev.8b00593
  46. J. Xu, X. Chen, S. Li, Y. Luo, S. Deng et al., On-skin epidermal electronics for next-generation health management. Nano-Micro Lett. 18(1), 25 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1007/s40820-025-01871-5
  47. J.-W. Jeong, W.-H. Yeo, A. Akhtar, J.J.S. Norton, Y.-J. Kwack et al., Materials and optimized designs for human-machine interfaces via epidermal electronics. Adv. Mater. 25(47), 6839–6846 (2013). https://doi.org/10.1002/adma.201301921
  48. T. Saha, M.I. Khan, S.S. Sandhu, L. Yin, S. Earney et al., A passive perspiration inspired wearable platform for continuous glucose monitoring. Adv. Sci. 11(41), 2405518 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1002/advs.202405518
Read More
Author biographies are not available.

Most read articles by the same author(s)