Issue

Vol. 18 (2026)

Amine-Salt-Assisted Solution Crystallization of Inorganic Perovskite Single Crystals for High-Performance X-Ray Detection

https://doi.org/10.1007/s40820-026-02272-y
Yujia Jiang
Key Laboratory of Applied Surface and Colloid Chemistry Ministry of Education, Shaanxi Provincial Basic Discipline (Surface and Interface Chemistry) Research Center, Shaanxi Key Laboratory for Advanced Energy Devices, Shaanxi Engineering Lab for Advanced Energy Technology, School of Materials Science and Engineering, Shaanxi Normal University, Xi’an 710119, People’s Republic of China
Depeng Chu
Key Laboratory of Applied Surface and Colloid Chemistry Ministry of Education, Shaanxi Provincial Basic Discipline (Surface and Interface Chemistry) Research Center, Shaanxi Key Laboratory for Advanced Energy Devices, Shaanxi Engineering Lab for Advanced Energy Technology, School of Materials Science and Engineering, Shaanxi Normal University, Xi’an 710119, People’s Republic of China
Jiacheng Pi
Key Laboratory of Applied Surface and Colloid Chemistry Ministry of Education, Shaanxi Provincial Basic Discipline (Surface and Interface Chemistry) Research Center, Shaanxi Key Laboratory for Advanced Energy Devices, Shaanxi Engineering Lab for Advanced Energy Technology, School of Materials Science and Engineering, Shaanxi Normal University, Xi’an 710119, People’s Republic of China
Naiming Liu
Key Laboratory of Applied Surface and Colloid Chemistry Ministry of Education, Shaanxi Provincial Basic Discipline (Surface and Interface Chemistry) Research Center, Shaanxi Key Laboratory for Advanced Energy Devices, Shaanxi Engineering Lab for Advanced Energy Technology, School of Materials Science and Engineering, Shaanxi Normal University, Xi’an 710119, People’s Republic of China
Xueni Sun
Key Laboratory of Applied Surface and Colloid Chemistry Ministry of Education, Shaanxi Provincial Basic Discipline (Surface and Interface Chemistry) Research Center, Shaanxi Key Laboratory for Advanced Energy Devices, Shaanxi Engineering Lab for Advanced Energy Technology, School of Materials Science and Engineering, Shaanxi Normal University, Xi’an 710119, People’s Republic of China
Yunxia Zhang
School of Science, Xi’an University of Posts & Telecommunications, Xi’an 710121, People’s Republic of China
Ziyang Feng
Key Laboratory of Applied Surface and Colloid Chemistry Ministry of Education, Shaanxi Provincial Basic Discipline (Surface and Interface Chemistry) Research Center, Shaanxi Key Laboratory for Advanced Energy Devices, Shaanxi Engineering Lab for Advanced Energy Technology, School of Materials Science and Engineering, Shaanxi Normal University, Xi’an 710119, People’s Republic of China
Yuquan Wang
State Key Laboratory of Radiation Medicine and Protection, School of Radiation Medicine and Protection and Collaborative Innovation Center of Radiation Medicine of Jiangsu Higher Education Institutions, Soochow University, Suzhou 215123, People’s Republic of China
Wenjie Chen
State Key Laboratory of Radiation Medicine and Protection, School of Radiation Medicine and Protection and Collaborative Innovation Center of Radiation Medicine of Jiangsu Higher Education Institutions, Soochow University, Suzhou 215123, People’s Republic of China
Xinxin Wang
State Key Laboratory of Radiation Medicine and Protection, School of Radiation Medicine and Protection and Collaborative Innovation Center of Radiation Medicine of Jiangsu Higher Education Institutions, Soochow University, Suzhou 215123, People’s Republic of China
Jingyun Tian
Key Laboratory of Applied Surface and Colloid Chemistry Ministry of Education, Shaanxi Provincial Basic Discipline (Surface and Interface Chemistry) Research Center, Shaanxi Key Laboratory for Advanced Energy Devices, Shaanxi Engineering Lab for Advanced Energy Technology, School of Materials Science and Engineering, Shaanxi Normal University, Xi’an 710119, People’s Republic of China
Lei Zhao
Key Laboratory of Applied Surface and Colloid Chemistry Ministry of Education, Shaanxi Provincial Basic Discipline (Surface and Interface Chemistry) Research Center, Shaanxi Key Laboratory for Advanced Energy Devices, Shaanxi Engineering Lab for Advanced Energy Technology, School of Materials Science and Engineering, Shaanxi Normal University, Xi’an 710119, People’s Republic of China
Binxia Jia
Key Laboratory of Applied Surface and Colloid Chemistry Ministry of Education, Shaanxi Provincial Basic Discipline (Surface and Interface Chemistry) Research Center, Shaanxi Key Laboratory for Advanced Energy Devices, Shaanxi Engineering Lab for Advanced Energy Technology, School of Materials Science and Engineering, Shaanxi Normal University, Xi’an 710119, People’s Republic of China
Ruixin Shi
Key Laboratory of Applied Surface and Colloid Chemistry Ministry of Education, Shaanxi Provincial Basic Discipline (Surface and Interface Chemistry) Research Center, Shaanxi Key Laboratory for Advanced Energy Devices, Shaanxi Engineering Lab for Advanced Energy Technology, School of Materials Science and Engineering, Shaanxi Normal University, Xi’an 710119, People’s Republic of China
Yihui He
State Key Laboratory of Radiation Medicine and Protection, School of Radiation Medicine and Protection and Collaborative Innovation Center of Radiation Medicine of Jiangsu Higher Education Institutions, Soochow University, Suzhou 215123, People’s Republic of China
Yucheng Liu
Key Laboratory of Applied Surface and Colloid Chemistry Ministry of Education, Shaanxi Provincial Basic Discipline (Surface and Interface Chemistry) Research Center, Shaanxi Key Laboratory for Advanced Energy Devices, Shaanxi Engineering Lab for Advanced Energy Technology, School of Materials Science and Engineering, Shaanxi Normal University, Xi’an 710119, People’s Republic of China
Shengzhong Frank Liu
Key Laboratory of Applied Surface and Colloid Chemistry Ministry of Education, Shaanxi Provincial Basic Discipline (Surface and Interface Chemistry) Research Center, Shaanxi Key Laboratory for Advanced Energy Devices, Shaanxi Engineering Lab for Advanced Energy Technology, School of Materials Science and Engineering, Shaanxi Normal University, Xi’an 710119, People’s Republic of China

Corresponding Author: Shengzhong Frank Liu

szliu@dicp.ac.cn

Nano-Micro Letters, Vol. 18 (2026), Article Number: 421

Abstract

Inorganic perovskite CsPbCl3 single crystals (SCs) are promising for stable and high-performance X-ray detection due to their high X-ray absorption, superior optoelectronic properties, and superior chemical and thermal stability. However, the size of CsPbCl3 SCs grown via low-energy-consumption solution methods remains limited to below 1 mm, primarily because of the limited solubility of raw materials in solvents and the lack of effective growth techniques. In this work, an amine-salt-assisted solution crystallization strategy is developed to grow high-quality CsPbCl3 SCs with size up to 15 mm. This significant size improvement is enabled by a 13-fold increase in precursor solubility, achieved by constructing hydrogen bond interactions between the amine salt and insoluble raw materials. Consequently, the SCs exhibit high μτ product (6.3 × 10–3 cm2 V−1), low trap density (2.9 × 1010 cm−3), and large resistivity (1.7 × 109 Ω cm). Therefore, the SC detectors achieve a record-high sensitivity of 76,624 μC Gy−1 cm−2 and a low detection limit of 47.9 nGy s−1 even under low bias voltages, enabling high contrast X-ray imaging. This ingenious and executable low-temperature solution crystallization strategy combined with superior X-ray detection performance makes CsPbCl3 SCs promising to advance the low-cost development of safe radiation detection systems.


Highlights:
1 An amine-salt-assisted solution crystallization strategy is developed to grow high-quality CsPbCl3 single crystals (SCs) with a size as large as 15 mm, the SCs exhibit a high carrier mobility-lifetime product, low trap density, and large resistivity.
2 The CsPbCl3 SC X-ray detector achieved a high detection sensitivity of 76,624 μC Gy-1 cm-2 and a low detection limit of 47.9 nGy s-1, a short response time of 700 μs, therefore realized high contrast X-ray imaging.

Keywords

Perovskite CsPbCl3 single crystal Solution growth X-ray detection
Jiang, Yujia, Depeng Chu, Jiacheng Pi, Naiming Liu, Xueni Sun, Yunxia Zhang, Ziyang Feng, Yuquan Wang, Wenjie Chen, Xinxin Wang, Jingyun Tian, Lei Zhao, Binxia Jia, Ruixin Shi, Yihui He, Yucheng Liu, and Shengzhong Frank Liu. 2026. “Amine-Salt-Assisted Solution Crystallization of Inorganic Perovskite Single Crystals for High-Performance X-Ray Detection”. Nano-Micro Letters 18 (July):421. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40820-026-02272-y.
Download Citation
Endnote/Zotero/Mendeley (RIS)
BibTeX
References
  1. W. Wu, H. Gao, L. Jia, Y. Li, D. Zhang et al., Stable and uniform self-assembled organic diradical molecules for perovskite photovoltaics. Science 389(6756), 195–199 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1126/science.adv4551
  2. Y. Lin, Z. Lin, S. Lv, Y. Shui, W. Zhu et al., A Nd@C82–polymer interface for efficient and stable perovskite solar cells. Nature 642(8066), 78–84 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-025-08961-9
  3. D. Chu, N. Liu, S. Xie, Y. Li, J. Chen et al., Stable and ultrasensitive X-ray detectors based on oriented single-crystal perovskite rods. Adv. Mater. 37(27), 2500101 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1002/adma.202500101
  4. D. Chu, B. Jia, N. Liu, Y. Zhang, X. Li et al., Lattice engineering for stabilized black FAPbI3 perovskite single crystals for high-resolution X-ray imaging at the lowest dose. Sci. Adv. 9(35), eadh2255 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.adh2255
  5. J. Yu, Y. Luo, N. Tian, Y. Liu, Z. Yang et al., Large scale lead-free perovskite polycrystalline wafer achieved by hot-pressed strategy for high-performance X-ray detection. Adv. Mater. 37(4), 2413709 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1002/adma.202413709
  6. J. Yan, F. Gao, Y. Tian, Y. Li, W. Gong et al., Controllable perovskite single crystal heterojunction for stable self-powered photo-imaging and X-ray detection. Adv. Opt. Mater. 10(17), 2200449 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1002/adom.202200449
  7. J. Yan, Q. Zheng, S.-P. Wang, Y.-Z. Tian, W.-Q. Gong et al., Multifunctional organic–inorganic hybrid perovskite microcrystalline engineering and electromagnetic response switching multi-band devices. Adv. Mater. 35(25), 2300015 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1002/adma.202300015
  8. Y.-H. Huang, S.-Y. Zou, C.-Y. Sheng, Y.-C. Fang, X.-D. Wang et al., Lattice anchoring stabilizes α- FAPbI3 perovskite for high-performance X-ray detectors. Nano-Micro Lett. 18(1), 14 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1007/s40820-025-01856-4
  9. Z. Zhang, X. Wang, H. Li, D. Li, Y. Zhang et al., Face-/ edge-shared 3D perovskitoid single crystals with suppressed ion migration for stable X-ray detector. Nano-Micro Lett. 17(1), 310 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1007/s40820-025-01788-z
  10. M. Girolami, F. Matteocci, S. Pettinato, V. Serpente, E. Bolli et al., Metal-halide perovskite submicrometer-thick films for ultra-stable self-powered direct X-ray detectors. Nano-Micro Lett. 16(1), 182 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s40820-024-01393-6
  11. D.B. Straus, S. Guo, R.J. Cava, Kinetically stable single crystals of perovskite-phase CsPbI3. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 141(29), 11435–11439 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1021/jacs.9b06055
  12. Y. Hua, G. Zhang, X. Sun, P. Zhang, Y. Hao et al., Suppressed ion migration for high-performance X-ray detectors based on atmosphere-controlled EFG-grown perovskite CsPbBr3 single crystals. Nat. Photonics 18(8), 870–877 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41566-024-01480-5
  13. L. Pan, Z. Liu, C. Welton, V.V. Klepov, J.A. Peters et al., Ultrahigh-flux X-ray detection by a solution-grown perovskite CsPbBr3 single-crystal semiconductor detector. Adv. Mater. 35(25), 2211840 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1002/adma.202211840
  14. N. Shen, X. He, T. Gao, B. Xiao, Y. Wang et al., Single photon γ-ray imaging with high energy and spatial resolution perovskite semiconductor for nuclear medicine. Nat. Commun. 16, 8113 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-025-63400-7
  15. H. Qin, B. Xiao, X. He, X. Ouyang, T. Gao et al., Virtual Frisch grid perovskite CsPbBr3 semiconductor with 2.2-centimeter thickness for high energy resolution gamma-ray spectrometer. Nat. Commun. 16, 158 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-024-55561-8
  16. Y. He, C.C. Stoumpos, I. Hadar, Z. Luo, K.M. McCall et al., Demonstration of energy-resolved γ-Ray detection at room temperature by the CsPbCl3 perovskite semiconductor. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 143(4), 2068–2077 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1021/jacs.0c12254
  17. W. Xu, J. Liu, B. Dong, J. Huang, H. Shi et al., Atomic-scale imaging of ytterbium ions in lead halide perovskites. Sci. Adv. 9(35), eadi7931 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.adi7931
  18. X. Li, C. Liu, F. Ding, Z. Lu, P. Gao et al., Ultra-stable and sensitive ultraviolet photodetectors based on monocrystalline perovskite thin films. Adv. Funct. Mater. 33(15), 2213360 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1002/adfm.202213360
  19. M. Gong, M. Alamri, D. Ewing, S.M. Sadeghi, J.Z. Wu, Localized surface plasmon resonance enhanced light absorption in AuCu/CsPbCl3 core/shell nanocrystals. Adv. Mater. 32(26), 2002163 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1002/adma.202002163
  20. P. Gui, H. Zhou, F. Yao, Z. Song, B. Li et al., High-performance X-ray detection based on perovskite materials with enhanced stability. Small 15(39), 1902618 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1002/smll.201902618
  21. S.G. Ji, I.J. Park, H. Chang, J.H. Park, G.P. Hong et al., Stable pure-iodide wide-band-gap perovskites for efficient Si tandem cells via kinetically controlled phase evolution. Joule 6(10), 2390–2405 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.joule.2022.08.006
  22. N. Pellet, J. Teuscher, J. Maier, M. Grätzel, Transforming hybrid organic inorganic perovskites by rapid halide exchange. Chem. Mater. 27(6), 2181–2188 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.chemmater.5b00281
  23. Q.A. Akkerman, V. D’Innocenzo, S. Accornero, A. Scarpellini, A. Petrozza et al., Tuning the optical properties of cesium lead halide perovskite nanocrystals by anion exchange reactions. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 137(32), 10276–10281 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1021/jacs.5b05602
  24. N. Livakas, S. Toso, Y.P. Ivanov, T. Das, S. Chakraborty et al., CsPbCl3 → CsPbI3 exchange in perovskite nanocrystals proceeds through a jump-the-gap reaction mechanism. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 145(37), 20442–20450 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1021/jacs.3c06214
  25. Y. Zhang, J. Hao, Z. Zhao, J. Pi, R. Shi et al., Lead-free perovskite single crystal linear array detector for high-resolution X-ray imaging. Adv. Mater. 36(24), e2310831 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1002/adma.202310831
  26. Y. Liu, Y. Zhang, X. Zhu, Z. Yang, W. Ke et al., Inch-sized high-quality perovskite single crystals by suppressing phase segregation for light-powered integrated circuits. Sci. Adv. 7(7), eabc8844 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.abc8844
  27. Y. Liu, Y. Zhang, X. Zhu, J. Feng, I. Spanopoulos et al., Triple-cation and mixed-halide perovskite single crystal for high-performance X-ray imaging. Adv. Mater. 33(8), e2006010 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1002/adma.202006010
  28. L. Zhao, Y. Zhou, Z. Shi, Z. Ni, M. Wang et al., High-yield growth of FACsPbBr3 single crystals with low defect density from mixed solvents for gamma-ray spectroscopy. Nat. Photon. 17, 315–323 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41566-023-01154-8
  29. M. Li, S. Wang, A. Wood, J.D. Yeager, S.P. Stepanoff et al., Defect repairing in lead bromide perovskite single crystals with biasing and bromine for X-ray photon-counting detectors. Nat. Mater. 24(12), 1993–2000 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41563-025-02310-x
  30. J. Pang, H. Wu, H. Li, T. Jin, J. Tang et al., Reconfigurable perovskite X-ray detector for intelligent imaging. Nat. Commun. 15(1), 1769 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-024-46184-0
  31. R. Shi, J. Pi, D. Chu, B. Jia, Z. Zhao et al., Promoting band splitting through symmetry breaking in inorganic halide perovskite single crystals for high-sensitivity X-ray detection. ACS Energy Lett. 8(11), 4836–4847 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1021/acsenergylett.3c01661
  32. X. Pan, T. An, J. Sun, H. Dong, Z. Ma et al., Thermodynamically induced crystal restructuring to make CsPbCl3 single crystal films for weak light detection. Nano Res. 17(11), 9775–9783 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12274-024-6967-9
  33. X. Zhang, D. Chu, B. Jia, Z. Zhao, J. Pi et al., Heterointerface design of perovskite single crystals for high-performance X-ray imaging. Adv. Mater. 36(3), e2305513 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1002/adma.202305513
  34. S. Yang, S. Chen, E. Mosconi, Y. Fang, X. Xiao et al., Stabilizing halide perovskite surfaces for solar cell operation with wide-bandgap lead oxysalts. Science 365(6452), 473–478 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aax3294
  35. M. Chen, X. Dong, D. Chu, B. Jia, X. Zhang et al., Interlayer-spacing engineering of lead-free perovskite single crystal for high-performance X-ray imaging. Adv. Mater. 35(18), 2211977 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1002/adma.202211977
  36. D. Liu, Y. Zheng, X.Y. Sui, X.F. Wu, C. Zou et al., Universal growth of perovskite thin monocrystals from high solute flux for sensitive self-driven X-ray detection. Nat. Commun. 15(1), 2390 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-024-46712-y
  37. N. Liu, D. Chu, X. Xin, J. Tian, Y. Jiang et al., Unveiling the role of cesium in halide perovskite single crystal for stable and ultrasensitive X-ray detection. Adv. Funct. Mater. 36(21), 2504203 (2026). https://doi.org/10.1002/adfm.202504203
  38. Y. Fang, J. Huang, Resolving weak light of sub-picowatt per square centimeter by hybrid perovskite photodetectors enabled by noise reduction. Adv. Mater. 27(17), 2804–2810 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1002/adma.201500099
  39. Y. Liang, Z. Zhao, J. Hao, Y. Zhang, D. Chu et al., Interlamellar-spacing engineering of stable and toxicity-reduced 2D perovskite single crystal for high-resolution X-ray imaging. Nano Lett. 24(27), 8436–8444 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.nanolett.4c02507
Read More
Author biographies are not available.
Download this PDF file
PDF SUPPLEMENTARY FILE

Most read articles by the same author(s)