Issue

Vol. 18 (2026)

Fuel-Powered Soft Actuators: Emerging Strategies for Autonomous and Miniaturized Robots

https://doi.org/10.1007/s40820-025-01969-w
Cheng Zhou
School of Mechanical Engineering, Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang 212013, People’s Republic of China
Zhoutao Li
School of Mechanical Engineering, Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang 212013, People’s Republic of China
Hailong Wei
School of Mechanical Engineering, Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang 212013, People’s Republic of China
Guorong Zhang
School of Mechanical Engineering, Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang 212013, People’s Republic of China
Fengrui Zhang
School of Mechanical Engineering, Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang 212013, People’s Republic of China
Xiaoshuang Zhou
School of Microelectronics and Control Engineering, Changzhou University, Changzhou 213164, People’s Republic of China
Hongwei Hu
School of Mechanical Engineering, Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang 212013, People’s Republic of China
Guanggui Cheng
School of Mechanical Engineering, Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang 212013, People’s Republic of China
Jianning Ding
School of Mechanical Engineering, Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang 212013, People’s Republic of China
Shi Hyeong Kim
Department of Advanced Textile R&D, Korea Institute of Industrial Technology, Ansan‑Si, Gyeonggi‑do 15588, Republic of Korea
Ray H. Baughman
Alan G. MacDiarmid NanoTech Institute, University of Texas at Dallas, Richardson, TX 75080, USA
Xinghao Hu
School of Mechanical Engineering, Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang 212013, People’s Republic of China

Corresponding Author: Xinghao Hu

huxh@ujs.edu.cn

Nano-Micro Letters, Vol. 18 (2026), Article Number: 129

Abstract

Soft actuators, capable of producing mechanical work in response to external stimuli, have potential applications in robotics and exoskeletons. However, they face major challenges related to energy supply, especially in long-distance and miniaturized environments. Fuel-driven actuators offer a promising solution by enabling the conversion of chemical energy into mechanical energy, supporting self-sustaining operations. Chemical energy from fuel can be converted into mechanical energy either directly or indirectly through methods such as electron transfer-induced charge injection, structural changes, fuel-to-electricity conversion, fuel combustion-induced heat, or fuel-induced pneumatic actuation. This paper provides a comprehensive review of recent developments in fuel-powered actuators, covering their fundamental principles, advancements, and challenges. It concludes with an outlook for miniaturized and autonomous robots, highlighting the great potential of integrating fuel-powered actuators.


Highlights:
1 Fuel-powered soft actuators are elucidated in terms of their high power densities, enabling robots to operate effectively in long-distance or miniaturized environments.
2 The working principles, applications, and potential future improvements of typical fuel-powered actuators are comprehensively reviewed and discussed
3 Existing challenges and the future pathways for fuel-powered soft robots are delineated.

Keywords

Fuel-powered soft actuators Fuel electrochemical actuators Fuel thermal actuators Fuel-pneumatic actuators
Zhou, Cheng, Zhoutao Li, Hailong Wei, Guorong Zhang, Fengrui Zhang, Xiaoshuang Zhou, Hongwei Hu, Guanggui Cheng, Jianning Ding, Shi Hyeong Kim, Ray H. Baughman, and Xinghao Hu. 2026. “Fuel-Powered Soft Actuators: Emerging Strategies for Autonomous and Miniaturized Robots”. Nano-Micro Letters 18 (January):129. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40820-025-01969-w.
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