Issue

Vol. 18 (2026)

Semitransparent Perovskite Solar Cells: Strategies, Prospects, and Challenges

https://doi.org/10.1007/s40820-026-02147-2
Mohamad Firdaus Mohamad Noh
Institute of Sustainable Energy (ISE), Universiti Tenaga Nasional (UNITEN), Jalan IKRAM‑UNITEN, 43000 Kajang, Selangor, Malaysia
Nurul Affiqah Arzaee
Institute of Sustainable Energy (ISE), Universiti Tenaga Nasional (UNITEN), Jalan IKRAM‑UNITEN, 43000 Kajang, Selangor, Malaysia
Siti Naqiyah Sadikin
Institute of Sustainable Energy (ISE), Universiti Tenaga Nasional (UNITEN), Jalan IKRAM‑UNITEN, 43000 Kajang, Selangor, Malaysia
Muhammad Idzdihar Idris
Faculty of Electronic and Computer Technology and Engineering, Universiti Teknikal Malaysia Melaka (UTeM), Jalan Hang Tuah Jaya, Durian Tunggal, 76100 Melaka, Malaysia
Chien Fat Chau
Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, College of Engineering (COE), Universiti Tenaga Nasional (UNITEN), Jalan IKRAM‑UNITEN, 43000 Kajang, Selangor, Malaysia
Boon Kar Yap
Institute of Sustainable Energy (ISE), Universiti Tenaga Nasional (UNITEN), Jalan IKRAM‑UNITEN, 43000 Kajang, Selangor, Malaysia
Jingsong Huang
Oxford Suzhou Centre for Advanced Research, University of Oxford, Suzhou 215123, People’s Republic of China
Ryousuke Ishikawa
Advanced Research Laboratories, Tokyo City University, Setagaya‑ku, Tokyo 158‑8557, Japan
Ahmad Wafi Mahmood Zuhdi
Institute of Sustainable Energy (ISE), Universiti Tenaga Nasional (UNITEN), Jalan IKRAM‑UNITEN, 43000 Kajang, Selangor, Malaysia

Corresponding Author: Ahmad Wafi Mahmood Zuhdi

wafi@uniten.edu.my

Nano-Micro Letters, Vol. 18 (2026), Article Number: 317

Abstract

Perovskite solar cells (PSCs) have achieved efficiencies comparable to established photovoltaic technologies, positioning them as strong contenders for next-generation solar energy systems. Amid these advances, research efforts are now directed toward extending PSCs functionality by combining efficient power generation with optical transparency, leading to the emergence of semitransparent PSCs (ST-PSCs). Advancing this technology requires deeper understanding of its design principles, applications, economic viability, and performance limitations. Therefore, this review examines key strategies for achieving an optimal balance between efficiency and optical transparency in ST-PSCs across small-, large-scale, and flexible devices, with emphasis on the functional roles and optimization approaches of individual components. Particular attention is devoted to stability challenges, including degradation mechanisms and recent strategies for improving their durability. The versatility of ST-PSCs is further illustrated through their integration into advanced architectures such as tandem and bifacial configurations, as well as broader applications including building-integrated photovoltaics, agrivoltaic systems, and photovoltaic–photoelectrochemical hybrids for hydrogen production. A technoeconomic perspective is also provided, with emphasis on manufacturing cost and levelized cost of electricity for ST-PSCs. Finally, the remaining challenges, particularly related to long-term stability, scalability, cost, and area constraints, are critically discussed, along with potential pathways toward commercial realization of ST-PSC technology.


Highlights:
1 The development of semitransparent perovskite solar cells is analyzed from multiple optimization perspectives, focusing on the interdependence of efficiency, optical transparency, and stability.
2 Application-oriented performance considerations are discussed to relate laboratory-scale demonstrations to realistic deployment scenarios.
3 Critical bottlenecks limiting the development and deployment of semitransparent devices are identified, and practical optimization directions for next-generation applications are outlined.

Keywords

Semitransparent perovskite solar cells Light utilization efficiency Average transmittance Tandem Building-integrated photovoltaics
Noh, Mohamad Firdaus Mohamad, Nurul Affiqah Arzaee, Siti Naqiyah Sadikin, Muhammad Idzdihar Idris, Chien Fat Chau, Boon Kar Yap, Jingsong Huang, Ryousuke Ishikawa, and Ahmad Wafi Mahmood Zuhdi. 2026. “Semitransparent Perovskite Solar Cells: Strategies, Prospects, and Challenges”. Nano-Micro Letters 18 (April):317. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40820-026-02147-2.
Download Citation
Endnote/Zotero/Mendeley (RIS)
BibTeX
References
  1. J. Han, K. Park, S. Tan, Y. Vaynzof, J. Xue et al., Perovskite solar cells. Nat. Rev. Meth. Primers 5, 3 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1038/s43586-024-00373-9
  2. M.F. Mohamad Noh, N.A. Arzaee, I.N. Nawas Mumthas, A. Aadenan, H. Alessa et al., Facile tuning of PbI2 porosity via additive engineering for humid air processable perovskite solar cells. Electrochim. Acta 402, 139530 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.electacta.2021.139530
  3. NREL, Best research-cell efficiency chart. (NREL, 2025), https://www.nrel.gov/pv/cell-efficiency. Accessed 23 Oct 2025
  4. G. Dastgeer, S. Nisar, M.W. Zulfiqar, J. Eom, M. Imran et al., A review on recent progress and challenges in high-efficiency perovskite solar cells. Nano Energy 132, 110401 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nanoen.2024.110401
  5. P. Chen, Y. Xiao, S. Li, X. Jia, D. Luo et al., The promise and challenges of inverted perovskite solar cells. Chem. Rev. 124(19), 10623–10700 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.chemrev.4c00073
  6. N. Tsvetkov, D. Koo, D. Kim, H. Park, H. Min, Advances in single-crystal perovskite solar cells: from materials to performance. Nano Energy 130, 110069 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nanoen.2024.110069
  7. M.F. Mohamad Noh, N.A. Arzaee, I.N. Nawas Mumthas, N.A. Mohamed, S.N.F. Mohd Nasir et al., High-humidity processed perovskite solar cells. J. Mater. Chem. A 8(21), 10481–10518 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1039/d0ta01178a
  8. T. Liu, M.M.S. Almutairi, J. Ma, A. Stewart, Z. Xing et al., Solution-processed thin film transparent photovoltaics: present challenges and future development. Nano-Micro Lett. 17(1), 49 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s40820-024-01547-6
  9. A.K. Braun, J.T. Boyer, K.L. Schulte, W.E. McMahon, J. Simon et al., 24% single-junction GaAs solar cell grown directly on growth-planarized facets using hydride vapor phase epitaxy. Adv. Energy Mater. 14(3), 2302035 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1002/aenm.202302035
  10. B. Saparov, Next generation thin-film solar absorbers based on chalcogenides. Chem. Rev. 122(11), 10575–10577 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.chemrev.2c00346
  11. B. Deng, Y. Li, Z. Lu, K. Zheng, T. Xu et al., The art and science of translucent color organic solar cells. Nat. Commun. 16, 597 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-025-55924-9
  12. P. Kumar, S. You, A. Vomiero, Recent progress in materials and device design for semitransparent photovoltaic technologies. Adv. Energy Mater. 13(39), 2301555 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1002/aenm.202301555
  13. M. Ishaq, X. Li, S. Mehmood, Y.-M. Zhong, A. Mansoor et al., Heterojunction interface engineering enabling high transmittance and record efficiency in Sb2S3 semitransparent solar cell. Chem. Eng. J. 501, 157646 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2024.157646
  14. Y. Wang, H. Zhang, Y. Liu, Y. Qin, J. Liu et al., in Optimizing the laser scribing process to achieve a certified efficiency of 25.9% for over 240 cm2 Four-terminal perovskite/Si tandem solar cells. 2023 IEEE 50th Photovoltaic Specialists Conference (PVSC) June 11–16, 2023 (San Juan, PR, USA. IEEE, 2023). https://doi.org/10.1109/pvsc48320.2023.10360037
  15. X. Lian, Y. Xu, W. Fu, R. Meng, Q. Ma et al., Homogenizing morphology and composition of methylammonium-free wide-bandgap perovskite for efficient and stable tandem solar cells. Adv. Funct. Mater. 34(37), 2402061 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1002/adfm.202402061
  16. M.A. Green, E.D. Dunlop, M. Yoshita, N. Kopidakis, K. Bothe et al., Solar cell efficiency tables (version 66). Prog. Photovolt. Res. Appl. 33(7), 795–810 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1002/pip.3919
  17. Q. Jiang, Z. Song, R.C. Bramante, P.F. Ndione, R. Tirawat et al., Highly efficient bifacial single-junction perovskite solar cells. Joule 7(7), 1543–1555 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.joule.2023.06.001
  18. Y. Hu, X. Hu, L. Zhang, T. Zheng, J. You et al., Machine-learning modeling for ultra-stable high-efficiency perovskite solar cells. Adv. Energy Mater. 12(41), 2201463 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1002/aenm.202201463
  19. Z. Zhang, R. Ji, X. Jia, S.-J. Wang, M. Deconinck et al., Semitransparent perovskite solar cells with an evaporated ultra-thin perovskite absorber. Adv. Funct. Mater. 34(50), 2307471 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1002/adfm.202307471
  20. International Commission on Illumination, CIE spectral luminous efficiency for photopic vision (CIE, 2019). https://doi.org/10.25039/CIE.DS.dktna2s3. Accessed 22 Dec 2025
  21. D.H. Sliney, What is light? The visible spectrum and beyond. Eye 30(2), 222–229 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1038/eye.2015.252
  22. International Organization of Standardization, ISO standard 9050:2003 Glass in building: determination of light transmittance, solar direct transmittance, total solar energy transmittance, ultraviolet transmittance and related glazing factors (ISO, 2003). http://www.iso.org/iso. Accessed 4 Jan 2026
  23. J. Bing, L.G. Caro, H.P. Talathi, N.L. Chang, D.R. McKenzie et al., Perovskite solar cells for building integrated photovoltaics: glazing applications. Joule 6(7), 1446–1474 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.joule.2022.06.003
  24. C.J. Traverse, R. Pandey, M.C. Barr, R.R. Lunt, Emergence of highly transparent photovoltaics for distributed applications. Nat. Energy 2(11), 849–860 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41560-017-0016-9
  25. R.R. Lunt, Theoretical limits for visibly transparent photovoltaics. Appl. Phys. Lett. 101(4), 043902 (2012). https://doi.org/10.1063/1.4738896
  26. Z. Hu, J. Wang, X. Ma, J. Gao, C. Xu et al., A critical review on semitransparent organic solar cells. Nano Energy 78, 105376 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nanoen.2020.105376
  27. K.J. Prince, N.P. Irvin, M. Mirzokarimov, B.A. Rosales, D.T. Moore et al., Holistic thermo-optical design of laminate layers for halide perovskite photovoltaic windows. ACS Energy Lett. 9(12), 5836–5849 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1021/acsenergylett.4c02017
  28. A. Paliwal, M. Romero, L. van den Hengel, N. Rodkey, K.P.S. Zanoni et al., High light utilization and color rendering in vacuum-deposited semitransparent perovskite solar cells. Adv. Mater. (2025). https://doi.org/10.1002/adma.202512861
  29. Y. Wang, T. Mahmoudi, H.-Y. Yang, K.S. Bhat, J.-Y. Yoo et al., Fully-ambient-processed mesoscopic semitransparent perovskite solar cells by islands-structure-MAPbI3-xClx-NiO composite and Al2O3/NiO interface engineering. Nano Energy 49, 59–66 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nanoen.2018.04.036
  30. Ł Przypis, W. Żuraw, M. Grodzicki, M. Ścigaj, R. Kudrawiec et al., Facile preparation of large-area, ultrathin, flexible semi-transparent perovskite solar cells via spin-coating. ACS Appl. Energy Mater. 7(11), 4803–4812 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1021/acsaem.4c00517
  31. M.J. Jeong, J.H. Lee, C.H. You, S.Y. Kim, S. Lee et al., Oxide/halide/oxide architecture for high performance semi-transparent perovskite solar cells. Adv. Energy Mater. 12(31), 2200661 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1002/aenm.202200661
  32. A.Z. Afshord, B.E. Uzuner, W. Soltanpoor, S.H. Sedani, T. Aernouts et al., Efficient and stable inverted wide-bandgap perovskite solar cells and modules enabled by hybrid evaporation-solution method. Adv. Funct. Mater. 33(31), 2301695 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1002/adfm.202301695
  33. A. Paliwal, L. Mardegan, C. Roldan-Carmona, F. Palazon, T.-Y. Liu et al., Efficient semitransparent perovskite solar cells based on thin compact vacuum deposited CH3NH3PbI3 films. Adv. Mater. Interfaces 9(29), 2201222 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1002/admi.202201222
  34. F. Matteocci, D. Rossi, L.A. Castriotta, D. Ory, S. Mejaouri et al., Wide bandgap halide perovskite absorbers for semi-transparent photovoltaics: from theoretical design to modules. Nano Energy 101, 107560 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nanoen.2022.107560
  35. J. Lee, G. Jang, C.U. Lee, J. Son, W. Jeong et al., Retarded crystallization kinetics of one-step deposited MAPbCl3 perovskite enabling fully transparent solar cells. ACS Sustain. Chem. Eng. 12(13), 5272–5282 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1021/acssuschemeng.4c00201
  36. L. Yang, Y. Jin, Z. Fang, J. Zhang, Z. Nan et al., Efficient semi-transparent wide-bandgap perovskite solar cells enabled by pure-chloride 2D-perovskite passivation. Nano-Micro Lett. 15(1), 111 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s40820-023-01090-w
  37. D. Di Girolamo, G. Vidon, J. Barichello, F. Di Giacomo, F. Jafarzadeh et al., Breaking 1.7 V open circuit voltage in large area transparent perovskite solar cells using interfaces passivation. Adv. Energy Mater. 14(30), 2400663 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1002/aenm.202400663
  38. J.C. Yu, B. Li, C.J. Dunn, J. Yan, B.T. Diroll et al., High-performance and stable semi-transparent perovskite solar cells through composition engineering. Adv. Sci. 9(22), 2201487 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1002/advs.202201487
  39. R. Garai, B. Sharma, M.A. Afroz, S. Choudhary, T. Sharma et al., High-efficiency semitransparent perovskite solar cells enabled by controlling the crystallization of ultrathin films. ACS Energy Lett. 9(6), 2936–2943 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1021/acsenergylett.4c01149
  40. X. Zhang, Q. Ma, Y. Wang, J. Zheng, Q. Liu et al., Ligand homogenized Br–I wide-bandgap perovskites for efficient NiOx-based inverted semitransparent and tandem solar cells. ACS Nano 18(24), 15991–16001 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1021/acsnano.4c04341
  41. X. Zheng, S. Yang, J. Zhu, R. Liu, L. Li et al., Suppressing phase segregation and nonradiative losses by a multifunctional cross-linker for high-performance all-perovskite tandem solar cells. Energy Environ. Sci. 18(6), 2995–3004 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1039/d4ee02898h
  42. G.E. Eperon, D. Bryant, J. Troughton, S.D. Stranks, M.B. Johnston et al., Efficient, semitransparent neutral-colored solar cells based on microstructured formamidinium lead trihalide perovskite. J. Phys. Chem. Lett. 6(1), 129–138 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1021/jz502367k
  43. M.T. Hörantner, P.K. Nayak, S. Mukhopadhyay, K. Wojciechowski, C. Beck et al., Shunt-blocking layers for semitransparent perovskite solar cells. Adv. Mater. Interfaces 3(10), 1500837 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1002/admi.201500837
  44. B.-X. Chen, H.-S. Rao, H.-Y. Chen, W.-G. Li, D.-B. Kuang et al., Ordered macroporous CH3NH3PbI3 perovskite semitransparent film for high-performance solar cells. J. Mater. Chem. A 4(40), 15662–15669 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1039/c6ta06232f
  45. H.-C. Kwon, A. Kim, H. Lee, D. Lee, S. Jeong et al., Parallelized nanopillar perovskites for semitransparent solar cells using an anodized aluminum oxide scaffold. Adv. Energy Mater. 6(20), 1601055 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1002/aenm.201601055
  46. L. Rakocevic, R. Gehlhaar, M. Jaysankar, W. Song, T. Aernouts et al., Translucent, color-neutral and efficient perovskite thin film solar modules. J. Mater. Chem. C 6(12), 3034–3041 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1039/c7tc05863b
  47. D.B. Ritzer, B.A. Nejand, M.A. Ruiz-Preciado, S. Gharibzadeh, H. Hu et al., Translucent perovskite photovoltaics for building integration. Energy Environ. Sci. 16(5), 2212–2225 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1039/d2ee04137e
  48. C. Spampinato, G. Calogero, A. Alberti, A sputtered gig-lox TiO2 sponge integrated with CsPbI3: EuI2 for semitransparent perovskite solar cells. J. Phys. Chem. C 129(36), 16338–16346 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.jpcc.5c03520
  49. F. Jafarzadeh, L.A. Castriotta, M. Legrand, D. Ory, S. Cacovich et al., Flexible, transparent, and bifacial perovskite solar cells and modules using the wide-band gap FAPbBr3 perovskite absorber. ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 16(14), 17607–17616 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1021/acsami.4c01071
  50. P. Hou, S. Hu, Y. Zhang, J. Pan, M. Hu et al., Ordered self-assembled monolayer improved the buried interface of wide bandgap perovskite for efficient and stable semi-transparent solar cells. Chem. Eng. J. 503, 158499 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2024.158499
  51. S.D.H. Naqvi, K. Son, W. Jung, H.U. Hwang, S. Lee et al., Mitigating intrinsic interfacial degradation in semi-transparent perovskite solar cells for high efficiency and long-term stability. Adv. Energy Mater. 13(47), 2302147 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1002/aenm.202302147
  52. M. Zhang, Z. Ying, X. Li, S. Li, L. Chen et al., Hole-selective transparent in situ passivation contacts for efficient and stable n–i–p graded perovskite/silicon tandem solar cells. Adv. Mater. 37(14), 2416530 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1002/adma.202416530
  53. J.C. Yu, J. Sun, N. Chandrasekaran, C.J. Dunn, A.S.R. Chesman et al., Semi-transparent perovskite solar cells with a cross-linked hole transport layer. Nano Energy 71, 104635 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nanoen.2020.104635
  54. H. Gu, C. Fei, G. Yang, B. Chen, M.A. Uddin et al., Design optimization of bifacial perovskite minimodules for improved efficiency and stability. Nat. Energy 8(7), 675–684 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41560-023-01254-3
  55. J.W.C. Reinders, J. Bolding, C. Roldán-Carmona, F. Ventosinos, A. Paliwal et al., Room temperature pulsed laser deposition of aluminum zinc oxide (AZO): enabling scalable indium-free transparent conductive oxides. Adv. Funct. Mater. 35(13), 2418069 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1002/adfm.202418069
  56. L. Zhang, Z. Che, J. Shang, Q. Wang, M. Cao et al., Cerium-doped indium oxide as a top electrode of semitransparent perovskite solar cells. ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 15(8), 10838–10846 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1021/acsami.2c22942
  57. Z. Che, L. Zhang, J. Shang, Y. Zhan, Y. Zhou et al., Low-damage hydrogen-doped transparent electrodes towards semitransparent perovskite photovoltaics. Nano Energy 124, 109486 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nanoen.2024.109486
  58. Q. Yang, W. Duan, A. Eberst, B. Klingebiel, Y. Wang et al., Origin of sputter damage during transparent conductive oxide deposition for semitransparent perovskite solar cells. J. Mater. Chem. A 12(24), 14816–14827 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1039/d3ta06654a
  59. E. Magliano, P. Mariani, A. Agresti, S. Pescetelli, F. Matteocci et al., Semitransparent perovskite solar cells with ultrathin protective buffer layers. ACS Appl. Energy Mater. 6(20), 10340–10353 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1021/acsaem.3c00735
  60. S.-H. Lim, H.-J. Seok, M.-J. Kwak, D.-H. Choi, S.-K. Kim et al., Semi-transparent perovskite solar cells with bidirectional transparent electrodes. Nano Energy 82, 105703 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nanoen.2020.105703
  61. J. Jeong, S.J. Park, S. Park, D. Lim, J. Jang et al., Soft sputtering of NIR-transparent InGaTiO top electrodes on semi-transparent perovskite solar cells for perovskite-Si tandem solar cells. Nano Energy 143, 111327 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nanoen.2025.111327
  62. H.-J. Seok, J.-M. Park, J. Jeong, S. Lan, D.-K. Lee et al., Plasma damage-free deposition of transparent Sn-doped In2O3 top cathode using isolated plasma soft deposition for perovskite solar cells. Nano Energy 111, 108431 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nanoen.2023.108431
  63. B. Tyagi, H.B. Lee, N. Kumar, W.-Y. Jin, K.-J. Ko et al., High-performance, large-area semitransparent and tandem perovskite solar cells featuring highly scalable a-ITO/Ag mesh 3D top electrodes. Nano Energy 95, 106978 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nanoen.2022.106978
  64. C. Chen, L. Liu, T. Huang, B. Tu, H. Li et al., Dual interfacial design enables efficient and stable semitransparent wide-bandgap perovskite solar cells with scalable-coated silver nanowire contact for tandem applications. SusMat 5, e256 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1002/sus2.256
  65. D. Yang, X. Zhang, Y. Hou, K. Wang, T. Ye et al., 28.3%-efficiency perovskite/silicon tandem solar cell by optimal transparent electrode for high efficient semitransparent top cell. Nano Energy 84, 105934 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nanoen.2021.105934
  66. X. Cui, X. Li, Z. Wang, Z. Li, X. Chen et al., MoO3/Au/Ag/MoO3 multilayer transparent electrode enables high light utilization of semitransparent perovskite solar cells. Device 3(1), 100558 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.device.2024.100558
  67. Q. Fu, J. He, J. Zheng, Y. Xing, Q. Wang et al., Robust transparent Ag nanowire electrode for bifacial perovskite solar cells. J. Alloys Compd. 1001, 175058 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jallcom.2024.175058
  68. M. Bian, Y. Qian, H. Cao, T. Huang, Z. Ren et al., Chemically welding silver nanowires toward transferable and flexible transparent electrodes in heaters and double-sided perovskite solar cells. ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 15(10), 13307–13318 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1021/acsami.2c21996
  69. J. Kim, D. Kim, W. Kim, S. Woo, S.-W. Baek et al., Efficient semi-transparent perovskite quantum dot photovoltaics enabled by asymmetric dielectric/metal/dielectric transparent electrodes. Chem. Eng. J. 469, 143824 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2023.143824
  70. A. Lorusso, S. Masi, C. Triolo, F. Mariano, S. Muia et al., A rational approach to improve the overall performances of semitransparent perovskite solar cells by electrode optical management. ACS Energy Lett. 9(4), 1923–1931 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1021/acsenergylett.3c02602
  71. S.H. Reddy, F. Di Giacomo, F. Matteocci, L.A. Castriotta, A. Di Carlo, Holistic approach toward a damage-less sputtered indium tin oxide barrier layer for high-stability inverted perovskite solar cells and modules. ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 14(45), 51438–51448 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1021/acsami.2c10251
  72. T. Chen, Y. Yang, C. Zhu, W. Lin, Q. Dai et al., Revealing the stability origins of 596 days-humidity-stable semitransparent perovskite solar cells. J. Energy Chem. 94, 208–216 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jechem.2024.02.057
  73. C. Zhang, M. Chen, F. Fu, H. Zhu, T. Feurer et al., CNT-based bifacial perovskite solar cells toward highly efficient 4-terminal tandem photovoltaics. Energy Environ. Sci. 15(4), 1536–1544 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1039/d1ee04008a
  74. B. Li, X.-G. Hu, Z. Hu, A.-P. Wu, Z. Lin et al., Economical and efficient four-terminal perovskite/single-walled carbon nanotube-silicon tandem solar cells. J. Mater. Sci. Technol. 235, 167–173 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmst.2025.03.012
  75. J. Zhang, X.-G. Hu, K. Ji, S. Zhao, D. Liu et al., High-performance bifacial perovskite solar cells enabled by single-walled carbon nanotubes. Nat. Commun. 15, 2245 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-024-46620-1
  76. S. Yoon, I.H. Lee, J. Han, J. Bahadur, S. Lee et al., Semi-transparent metal electrode-free all-inorganic perovskite solar cells using floating-catalyst-synthesized carbon nanotubes. EcoMat 6(3), e12440 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1002/eom2.12440
  77. T. Feeney, I.M. Hossain, S. Gharibzadeh, F. Gota, R. Singh et al., Four-terminal perovskite/copper indium gallium selenide tandem solar cells: unveiling the path to >27% in power conversion efficiency. Sol. RRL 6(12), 2200662 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1002/solr.202200662
  78. N. Rodkey, K.P.S. Zanoni, M. Piot, C. Dreessen, R. Grote et al., Efficient micrometer thick bifacial perovskite solar cells. Adv. Energy Mater. 14(21), 2400058 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1002/aenm.202400058
  79. M. Kinoshita, Y. Sasaki, S. Amemori, N. Harada, Z. Hu et al., Photon upconverting solid films with improved efficiency for endowing perovskite solar cells with near-infrared sensitivity. ChemPhotoChem 4(11), 5271–5278 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1002/cptc.202000143
  80. D. Glowienka, C.-M. Tsai, A. Sbai, D. Luo, P.-H. Lee et al., Improving the efficiency of semitransparent perovskite solar cell using down-conversion coating. ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 16(46), 63528–63539 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1021/acsami.4c12551
  81. Y. Yang, M.T. Hoang, W.-H. Chiu, Y. Yu, H. Wang, Efficient bifacial semitransparent perovskite solar cells using down-conversion 2D perovskite nanoplatelets–poly(methyl methacrylate) composite film. Small Struct. 5(6), 2300547 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1002/sstr.202300547
  82. X. Jiang, C. Geng, X. Yu, J. Pan, H. Zheng et al., Doping with KBr to achieve high-performance CsPbBr3 semitransparent perovskite solar cells. ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 16(15), 19039–19047 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1021/acsami.4c02402
  83. F. Bisconti, A. Giuri, L. Dominici, S. Carallo, E. Quadrivi et al., Managing transparency through polymer/perovskite blending: a route toward thermostable and highly efficient, semi-transparent solar cells. Nano Energy 89, 106406 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nanoen.2021.106406
  84. Z. Yuan, M. Zhang, Z. Yen, M. Feng, X. Jin et al., High-performance semi-transparent perovskite solar cells with over 22% visible transparency: pushing the limit through MXene interface engineering. ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 15(31), 37629–37639 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1021/acsami.3c03804
  85. P. Mariani, M.Á. Molina-García, J. Barichello, M.I. Zappia, E. Magliano et al., Low-temperature strain-free encapsulation for perovskite solar cells and modules passing multifaceted accelerated ageing tests. Nat. Commun. 15, 4552 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-024-48877-y
  86. E. Alvianto, G. Wan, Z. Shi, H. Liang, X. Wang et al., Sustainable manufacturing of perovskite-CIGS tandem solar cells through lamination with metal-free transparent conductive adhesives. ACS Energy Lett. 9(5), 2057–2064 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1021/acsenergylett.4c00350
  87. H.-Y. Jung, E.S. Oh, D.J. Kim, H. Shim, W. Lee et al., Adjusted bulk and interfacial properties in highly stable semitransparent perovskite solar cells fabricated by thermocompression bonding between perovskite layers. ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 15(26), 31344–31353 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1021/acsami.3c01946
  88. J. Cheng, W. Kim, I. Choi, S. Yu, B. Koo et al., Halide-diffusion-assisted perovskite lamination process for semitransparent perovskite solar cells. Small 21(2), 2409821 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1002/smll.202409821
  89. Y. Wang, S. Akel, B. Klingebiel, T. Kirchartz, Hole transporting bilayers for efficient micrometer-thick perovskite solar cells. Adv. Energy Mater. 14(5), 2302614 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1002/aenm.202302614
  90. E.D. Jung, A.K. Harit, D.H. Kim, C.H. Jang, J.H. Park et al., Multiply charged conjugated polyelectrolytes as a multifunctional interlayer for efficient and scalable perovskite solar cells. Adv. Mater. 32(30), 2002333 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1002/adma.202002333
  91. M.F. Mohamad Noh, N.A. Arzaee, M.N. Harif, M.A. Mat Teridi, A.R. bin Mohd Yusoff et al., Defect engineering at buried interface of perovskite solar cells. Small Meth. 8(12), 2400385 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1002/smtd.202400385
  92. M.F. Mohamad Noh, C.H. Teh, R. Daik, E.L. Lim, C.C. Yap et al., The architecture of the electron transport layer for a perovskite solar cell. J. Mater. Chem. C 6(4), 682–712 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1039/C7TC04649A
  93. W. Meng, K. Zhang, A. Osvet, J. Zhang, W. Gruber et al., Revealing the strain-associated physical mechanisms impacting the performance and stability of perovskite solar cells. Joule 6(2), 458–475 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.joule.2022.01.011
  94. C. Luo, G. Zheng, F. Gao, X. Wang, C. Zhan et al., Engineering the buried interface in perovskite solar cells via lattice-matched electron transport layer. Nat. Photon. 17(10), 856–864 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41566-023-01247-4
  95. H. Xu, Y. Xiao, K.A. Elmestekawy, P. Caprioglio, Q. Li et al., Metastable interphase induced pre-strain compensation enables efficient and stable perovskite solar cells. Energy Environ. Sci. 18(1), 246–255 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1039/d4ee03801k
  96. S. Tao, I. Schmidt, G. Brocks, J. Jiang, I. Tranca et al., Absolute energy level positions in tin- and lead-based halide perovskites. Nat. Commun. 10, 2560 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-019-10468-7
  97. S. Hu, J. Thiesbrummel, J. Pascual, M. Stolterfoht, A. Wakamiya et al., Narrow bandgap metal halide perovskites for all-perovskite tandem photovoltaics. Chem. Rev. 124(7), 4079–4123 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.chemrev.3c00667
  98. J. Kim, H. Lee, Y. Lee, J. Kim, From wide-bandgap to narrow-bandgap perovskite: applications from single-junction to tandem optoelectronics. Chemsuschem 17(24), e202400945 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1002/cssc.202400945
  99. Y. Zhang, S. Ge, C. Pu, J. Xu, Y. Xiao et al., Enhancing efficiency and stability of tin-based perovskite solar cells through A-site compositional engineering. Nano Lett. 25(35), 13095–13102 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.nanolett.5c02305
  100. S. Baumann, G.E. Eperon, A. Virtuani, Q. Jeangros, D.B. Kern et al., Stability and reliability of perovskite containing solar cells and modules: degradation mechanisms and mitigation strategies. Energy Environ. Sci. 17(20), 7566–7599 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1039/d4ee01898b
  101. J. Mei, F. Yan, Recent advances in wide-bandgap perovskite solar cells. Adv. Mater. 37(48), 2418622 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1002/adma.202418622
  102. T. Nie, L. Jia, J. Feng, S. Yang, J. Ding et al., Advances in single-halogen wide-bandgap perovskite solar cells. Adv. Funct. Mater. 35(9), 2416264 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1002/adfm.202416264
  103. W.J. Jang, H.W. Jang, S.Y. Kim, Recent advances in wide bandgap perovskite solar cells: focus on lead-free materials for tandem structures. Small Meth. 8(2), 2300207 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1002/smtd.202300207
  104. L. Gil-Escrig, I. Susic, İ Doğan, V. Zardetto, M. Najafi et al., Efficient and thermally stable wide bandgap perovskite solar cells by dual-source vacuum deposition. Adv. Funct. Mater. 33(31), 2214357 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1002/adfm.202214357
  105. W. Zia, M. Malekshahi Byranvand, T. Rudolph, M. Rai, M. Kot et al., MAPbCl3 light absorber for highest voltage perovskite solar cells. ACS Energy Lett. 9(3), 1017–1024 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1021/acsenergylett.3c02777
  106. P. Caprioglio, J.A. Smith, R.D.J. Oliver, A. Dasgupta, S. Choudhary et al., Open-circuit and short-circuit loss management in wide-gap perovskite p-i-n solar cells. Nat. Commun. 14, 932 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-023-36141-8
  107. B. Guo, M. Chauhan, N.R. Woodward, G.R. McAndrews, G.J. Thapa et al., In situ stress monitoring reveals tension and wrinkling evolutions during halide perovskite film formation. ACS Energy Lett. 9(1), 75–84 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1021/acsenergylett.3c02079
  108. Y. Bai, Z. Huang, X. Zhang, J. Lu, X. Niu et al., Initializing film homogeneity to retard phase segregation for stable perovskite solar cells. Science 378(6621), 747–754 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1126/science.abn3148
  109. D.P. McMeekin, P. Holzhey, S.O. Fürer, S.P. Harvey, L.T. Schelhas et al., Intermediate-phase engineering via dimethylammonium cation additive for stable perovskite solar cells. Nat. Mater. 22(1), 73–83 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41563-022-01399-8
  110. Z. Fang, T. Nie, S.F. Liu, J. Ding, Overcoming phase segregation in wide-bandgap perovskites: from progress to perspective. Adv. Funct. Mater. 34(42), 2404402 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1002/adfm.202404402
  111. S.B. Kang, B. Salimzhanov, W.J. Park, M.H. Jeong, J.-Y. Kim et al., Colorful transparent silicon photovoltaics with unprecedented flexibility. Adv. Funct. Mater. 32(9), 2110435 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1002/adfm.202110435
  112. A.H. Chowdhury, H.P. Yoon, Translucent Si solar cells patterned with pulsed ultraviolet laser beam. Adv. Energy Sustain. Res. 5(11), 2400147 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1002/aesr.202400147
  113. S. Kuk, Z. Wang, H. Yu, C.-Y. Nam, J.-H. Jeong et al., Nanosecond laser scribing for see-through CIGS thin film solar cells. Prog. Photovolt. Res. Appl. 28(2), 135–147 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1002/pip.3219
  114. N. Rolston, B.L. Watson, C.D. Bailie, M.D. McGehee, J.P. Bastos et al., Mechanical integrity of solution-processed perovskite solar cells. Extreme Mech. Lett. 9, 353–358 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eml.2016.06.006
  115. Z. Wang, X. Chen, X. Feng, S. Liu, J. Tang et al., Optical coupling optimization enables cost-effective planar silicon-perovskite tandem solar cells. Carbon Neutralization 4(5), e70035 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1002/cnl2.70035
  116. N.A. Arzaee, N. Yodsin, H. Ullah, S. Sultana, M.F. Mohamad Noh et al., Enhanced hydrogen evolution reaction performance of anatase–rutile TiO2 heterojunction via charge transfer from rutile to anatase. Catal. Sci. Technol. 13(24), 6937–6950 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1039/d3cy00918a
  117. Q. Jiang, K. Zhu, Rapid advances enabling high-performance inverted perovskite solar cells. Nat. Rev. Mater. 9(6), 399–419 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41578-024-00678-x
  118. P. Zhu, S. Gu, X. Luo, Y. Gao, S. Li et al., Simultaneous contact and grain-boundary passivation in planar perovskite solar cells using SnO2-KCl composite electron transport layer. Adv. Energy Mater. 10(3), 1903083 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1002/aenm.201903083
  119. S.-H. Jeong, J.-S. Hwang, J.-K. Hwang, S.-W. Lee, W. Lee et al., Potassium chloride passivation for sputtered SnO2 to eliminate hysteresis and enhance the efficiency of perovskite solar cells. J. Alloys Compd. 968, 171890 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jallcom.2023.171890
  120. F. Xu, X. Yang, T. Huang, Z. Li, Y. Ji et al., The emergence of top-incident perovskite solar cells. Nano Energy 130, 110171 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nanoen.2024.110171
  121. F. Meng, D. Wang, J. Chang, J. Li, G. Wang, Application of carbon materials in conductive electrodes for perovskite solar cells. Sol. RRL 8(6), 2301030 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1002/solr.202301030
  122. A. Anand, M.M. Islam, R. Meitzner, U.S. Schubert, H. Hoppe, Introduction of a novel figure of merit for the assessment of transparent conductive electrodes in photovoltaics: Exact and approximate form. Adv. Energy Mater. 11(26), 2100875 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1002/aenm.202100875
  123. J. Safaei, N.N. Rosli, M.F. Mohamad Noh, N.A. Mohamed, M.A. Ibrahim et al., Low temperature fabrication of transparent conductive electrode with high ultraviolet transmittance down to wavelength of 250 nm. Phys. Status Solidi RRL 12(12), 1800441 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1002/pssr.201800441
  124. N.A. Arzaee, F.I. Za’abar, M.S. Bahrudin, A.Z. Arsad, N.I. Azman et al., Systematic optimization of sol–gel processed Al-doped ZnO for cost-effective transparent conductive oxide. J. Sol Gel Sci. Technol. 110(1), 52–61 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10971-024-06340-w
  125. V.H. Nguyen, D.T. Papanastasiou, J. Resende, L. Bardet, T. Sannicolo et al., Advances in flexible metallic transparent electrodes. Small 18(19), 2106006 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1002/smll.202106006
  126. T. Lemercier, E. Planès, L. Flandin, S. Berson, L. Perrin, Toward semitransparent PIN-type perovskite solar cells with sputtered ITO electrode: architecture and process optimizations. ACS Appl. Energy Mater. 6(19), 9938–9950 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1021/acsaem.3c01478
  127. Pilkington, NSG TECTM: The original ITO replacement (Pilkington, 2025). https://www.pilkington.com/en/powered-by-nsg-tec/overview#. Accessed 22 Dec 2025
  128. A. Tchenka, A. Agdad, M.C. Samba Vall, S.K. Hnawi, A. Narjis et al., Effect of RF sputtering power and deposition time on optical and electrical properties of indium tin oxide thin film. Adv. Mater. Sci. Eng. 2021, 5556305 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1155/2021/5556305
  129. M. Schultes, T. Helder, E. Ahlswede, M.F. Aygüler, P. Jackson et al., Sputtered transparent electrodes (IO: H and IZO) with low parasitic near-infrared absorption for perovskite–Cu(In, Ga)Se2 tandem solar cells. ACS Appl. Energy Mater. 2(11), 7823–7831 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1021/acsaem.9b01224
  130. M.N. Abd Rahman, A.W.M. Zuhdi, U.A.U. Amirulddin, M. Isah, N.I. Azman et al., Effect of deposition regime transition on the properties of Al: ZnO transparent conducting oxide layer by radio frequency magnetron sputtering system. Ceram. Int. 50(21), 43070–43081 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ceramint.2024.08.158
  131. K.O. Brinkmann, J. Zhao, N. Pourdavoud, T. Becker, T. Hu et al., Suppressed decomposition of organometal halide perovskites by impermeable electron-extraction layers in inverted solar cells. Nat. Commun. 8, 13938 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1038/ncomms13938
  132. M.F. Mohamad Noh, N.A. Arzaee, C.C. Fat, T. Sieh Kiong, M.A. Mat Teridi et al., Perovskite/CIGS tandem solar cells: progressive advances from technical perspectives. Mater. Today Energy 39, 101473 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mtener.2023.101473
  133. M. Mujahid, C. Chen, J. Zhang, C. Li, Y. Duan, Recent advances in semitransparent perovskite solar cells. InfoMat 3(1), 101–124 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1002/inf2.12154
  134. Q. Xue, R. Xia, C.J. Brabec, H.-L. Yip, Recent advances in semi-transparent polymer and perovskite solar cells for power generating window applications. Energy Environ. Sci. 11(7), 1688–1709 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1039/c8ee00154e
  135. C. Zhang, C. Ji, Y.-B. Park, L.J. Guo, Thin-metal-film-based transparent conductors: material preparation, optical design, and device applications. Adv. Opt. Mater. 9(3), 2001298 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1002/adom.202001298
  136. Y. Xu, J. Wang, L. Sun, H. Huang, J. Han et al., Top transparent electrodes for fabricating semitransparent organic and perovskite solar cells. J. Mater. Chem. C 9(29), 9102–9123 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1039/d1tc02413b
  137. O. Selmi, A. Lorusso, M. Mazzeo, J.-A. Alberola-Borràs, R. Vidal et al., Spectroscopic matching in semitransparent solar cells with I-Br mixed halide perovskite and DMD electrode. Mater. Adv. 6(20), 7231–7242 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1039/d5ma00972c
  138. C. He, J. Wang, S. Chen, Y. Zhou, N. Jiang et al., Resolving the contradiction between efficiency and transparency of semitransparent perovskite solar cells by optimizing dielectric-metal-dielectric transparent top electrode. Sol. RRL 7(13), 2300126 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1002/solr.202300126
  139. A.P. Muthukrishnan, J. Lee, J.Y. Kim, A. Karim, J. Kim et al., Hot-pressing transfer of diffraction-grating perovskite for efficient bifacial perovskite solar cells. Adv. Mater. Interfaces 11(4), 2300808 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1002/admi.202300808
  140. Y. Zhang, Y. Chen, X. Xiao, Y. Xu, S. Xue, SnO2/silver nanowire/polyimide flexible transparent conductive films for double-sided perovskite solar cells and heaters. ACS Appl. Nano Mater. 7(17), 20745–20754 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1021/acsanm.4c03681
  141. M. Que, B. Zhang, J. Chen, X. Yin, S. Yun, Carbon-based electrodes for perovskite solar cells. Mater. Adv. 2(17), 5560–5579 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1039/d1ma00352f
  142. Y. Zhong, J. Yang, X. Wang, Y. Liu, Q. Cai et al., Inhibition of ion migration for highly efficient and stable perovskite solar cells. Adv. Mater. 35(52), 2302552 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1002/adma.202302552
  143. M. Forouzandeh, M. Heidariramsheh, H.R. Heydarnezhad, H. Nikbakht, M. Stefanelli et al., Enhanced carbon-based back contact electrodes for perovskite solar cells: Effect of carbon paste composition on performance and stability. Carbon 229, 119450 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.carbon.2024.119450
  144. E.L. Lim, C.C. Yap, M.H.H. Jumali, M.A.M. Teridi, C.H. Teh, A minireview: can graphene be a novel material for perovskite solar cell applications? Nano-Micro Lett. 10(2), 27 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1007/s40820-017-0182-0
  145. N.N. Rosli, M.A. Ibrahim, N. Ahmad Ludin, M.A. Mat Teridi, K. Sopian, A review of graphene based transparent conducting films for use in solar photovoltaic applications. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 99, 83–99 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2018.09.011
  146. M.M. Tavakoli, M. Nasilowski, J. Zhao, M.G. Bawendi, J. Kong, Efficient semitransparent CsPbI3 quantum dots photovoltaics using a graphene electrode. Small Meth. 3(12), 1900449 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1002/smtd.201900449
  147. X. Wang, W. Wang, J. Liu, J. Qi, Y. He et al., Reducing optical reflection loss for perovskite solar cells via printable mesoporous SiO2 antireflection coatings. Adv. Funct. Mater. 32(44), 2203872 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1002/adfm.202203872
  148. Z. Liu, C. Zhu, H. Luo, W. Kong, X. Luo et al., Grain regrowth and bifacial passivation for high-efficiency wide-bandgap perovskite solar cells. Adv. Energy Mater. 13(2), 2203230 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1002/aenm.202203230
  149. A.M. Law, L.O. Jones, J.M. Walls, The performance and durability of anti-reflection coatings for solar module cover glass–a review. Sol. Energy 261, 85–95 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.solener.2023.06.009
  150. D.I. Kim, S. Lee, S. Ji, S. Kang, W. Song et al., Precise intergranular voids control of MgF2 via solidifying micelle-carried precursor for tunable refractive index. Small Struct. 5(2), 2300338 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1002/sstr.202300338
  151. H. Wu, Y. Cheng, J. Ma, J. Zhang, Y. Zhang et al., Pivotal routes for maximizing semitransparent perovskite solar cell performance: photon propagation management and carrier kinetics regulation. Adv. Mater. 35(5), 2206574 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1002/adma.202206574
  152. C. Huang, P. Li, X. Li, J. Gu, N. Fu et al., Applications of rare-earth-based up-conversion and down-conversion in perovskite solar cells: a review. Sol. RRL 7(23), 2300518 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1002/solr.202300518
  153. P. Xia, D.-E. Guo, S. Lin, S. Liu, H. Huang et al., Simultaneous improvement of the power conversion efficiency and stability of perovskite solar cells by doping PMMA polymer in spiro-OMeTAD-based hole-transporting layer. Sol. RRL 5(11), 2100408 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1002/solr.202100408
  154. X. Li, F. Xie, S. Rafique, H. Wang, L. Deng et al., Spectral response regulation strategy by downshifting materials to improve efficiency of flexible perovskite solar cells. Nano Energy 114, 108619 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nanoen.2023.108619
  155. Z. Xie, S. Chen, S. Zhang, Y. Pei, L. Li et al., Multi-functional semiconductor polymer doped wide bandgap layer for all-perovskite solar cells with high efficiency and long durability. Small 21(32), 2410022 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1002/smll.202410022
  156. S.-H. Lim, H.-J. Seok, D.-H. Choi, S.-K. Kim, D.-H. Kim et al., Room temperature processed transparent amorphous InGaTiO cathodes for semi-transparent Perovskite solar cells. ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 13(23), 27353–27363 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1021/acsami.1c02327
  157. L.A. Castriotta, M.A. Uddin, H. Jiao, J. Huang, Transition of perovskite solar technologies to being flexible. Adv. Mater. 37(8), 2408036 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1002/adma.202408036
  158. X. Li, H. Yu, Z. Liu, J. Huang, X. Ma et al., Progress and challenges toward effective flexible perovskite solar cells. Nano-Micro Lett. 15(1), 206 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s40820-023-01165-8
  159. S. Sun, Y. Fang, G. Kieslich, T.J. White, A.K. Cheetham, Mechanical properties of organic–inorganic halide perovskites, CH3NH3PbX3 (X = I, Br and Cl), by nanoindentation. J. Mater. Chem. A 3(36), 18450–18455 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1039/c5ta03331d
  160. Z. Wang, X. Zhu, J. Feng, D. Yang, S.F. Liu, Semitransparent flexible perovskite solar cells for potential greenhouse applications. Sol. RRL 5(8), 2100264 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1002/solr.202100264
  161. S. Li, C. Wang, D. Zhao, Y. An, Y. Zhao et al., Flexible semitransparent perovskite solar cells with gradient energy levels enable efficient tandems with Cu(In, Ga)Se2. Nano Energy 78, 105378 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nanoen.2020.105378
  162. Q. Dong, M. Chen, Y. Liu, F.T. Eickemeyer, W. Zhao et al., Flexible Perovskite solar cells with simultaneously improved efficiency, operational stability, and mechanical reliability. Joule 5(6), 1587–1601 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.joule.2021.04.014
  163. T.-H. Kim, S.-H. Park, D.-H. Kim, Y.-C. Nah, H.-K. Kim, Roll-to-roll sputtered ITO/Ag/ITO multilayers for highly transparent and flexible electrochromic applications. Sol. Energy Mater. Sol. Cells 160, 203–210 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.solmat.2016.10.033
  164. L.A. Castriotta, M. Zendehdel, N. Yaghoobi Nia, E. Leonardi, M. Löffler et al., Reducing losses in perovskite large area solar technology: laser design optimization for highly efficient modules and minipanels. Adv. Energy Mater. 12(12), 2103420 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1002/aenm.202103420
  165. A. Agresti, F. Di Giacomo, S. Pescetelli, A. Di Carlo, Scalable deposition techniques for large-area Perovskite photovoltaic technology: a multi-perspective review. Nano Energy 122, 109317 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nanoen.2024.109317
  166. J. Liu, M. Zhang, X. Sun, L. Xiang, X. Yang et al., Scalable fabrication of methylammonium-free wide-bandgap perovskite solar cells by blade coating in ambient air. Nano-Micro Lett. 17(1), 318 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1007/s40820-025-01838-6
  167. L.A. Castriotta, M. Stefanelli, L. Vesce, E. Magliano, E. Leonardi et al., Semitransparent perovskite solar submodule for 4T tandem devices: industrial engineering route toward stable devices. IEEE J. Photovoltaics 14(3), 433–441 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1109/jphotov.2024.3377190
  168. P. Zhu, C. Chen, J. Dai, Y. Zhang, R. Mao et al., Toward the commercialization of perovskite solar modules. Adv. Mater. 36(15), 2307357 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1002/adma.202307357
  169. R.K. Kothandaraman, H. Lai, A. Aribia, S. Nishiwaki, S. Siegrist et al., Laser patterned flexible 4T perovskite-Cu(In, Ga)Se2Tandem mini-module with over 18% efficiency. Sol. RRL 6(9), 2200392 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1002/solr.202200392
  170. X. Dai, S. Chen, Y. Deng, A. Wood, G. Yang et al., Pathways to high efficiency Perovskite monolithic solar modules. PRX Energy 1, 013004 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1103/prxenergy.1.013004
  171. M. Jaysankar, S. Paetel, E. Ahlswede, U.W. Paetzold, T. Aernouts et al., Toward scalable Perovskite-based multijunction solar modules. Prog. Photovolt. Res. Appl. 27(8), 733–738 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1002/pip.3153
  172. Q. Rehman, A. Ijaz, A.S. Gul, A.D. Khan, A. Basit et al., Fabrication of stable large-area semi-transparent perovskite solar module for building-integrated photovoltaics. Sol. Energy 287, 113222 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.solener.2024.113222
  173. J. García Cerrillo, A. Distler, F. Matteocci, K. Forberich, M. Wagner et al., Matching the photocurrent of 2-terminal mechanically-stacked perovskite/organic tandem solar modules by varying the cell width. Sol. RRL 8(3), 2300767 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1002/solr.202300767
  174. L. Duan, D. Walter, N. Chang, J. Bullock, D. Kang et al., Stability challenges for the commercialization of perovskite–silicon tandem solar cells. Nat. Rev. Mater. 8(4), 261–281 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41578-022-00521-1
  175. N. Ahn, M. Choi, Towards long-term stable perovskite solar cells: degradation mechanisms and stabilization techniques. Adv. Sci. 11(4), 2306110 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1002/advs.202306110
  176. H. Zhu, S. Teale, M.N. Lintangpradipto, S. Mahesh, B. Chen et al., Long-term operating stability in perovskite photovoltaics. Nat. Rev. Mater. 8(9), 569–586 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41578-023-00582-w
  177. G. Nazir, S.-Y. Lee, J.-H. Lee, A. Rehman, J.-K. Lee et al., Stabilization of perovskite solar cells: recent developments and future perspectives. Adv. Mater. 34(50), 2204380 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1002/adma.202204380
  178. Q. Jiang, J. Tong, R.A. Scheidt, X. Wang, A.E. Louks et al., Compositional texture engineering for highly stable wide-bandgap perovskite solar cells. Science 378(6626), 1295–1300 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1126/science.adf0194
  179. Z. Zhang, X. Wang, H. Li, D. Li, Y. Zhang et al., Face-/ edge-shared 3D perovskitoid single crystals with suppressed ion migration for stable X-ray detector. Nano-Micro Lett. 17(1), 310 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1007/s40820-025-01788-z
  180. K. Niu, C. Wang, J. Zeng, Z. Wang, Y. Liu et al., Ion migration in lead-halide perovskites: cation matters. J. Phys. Chem. Lett. 15(4), 1006–1018 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.jpclett.3c03451
  181. Y. Yuan, J. Huang, Ion migration in organometal trihalide perovskite and its impact on photovoltaic efficiency and stability. Acc. Chem. Res. 49(2), 286–293 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.accounts.5b00420
  182. J.T. DuBose, P.V. Kamat, Hole trapping in halide perovskites induces phase segregation. Acc. Mater. Res. 3(7), 761–771 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1021/accountsmr.2c00076
  183. E.T. Hoke, D.J. Slotcavage, E.R. Dohner, A.R. Bowring, H.I. Karunadasa et al., Reversible photo-induced trap formation in mixed-halide hybrid perovskites for photovoltaics. Chem. Sci. 6(1), 613–617 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1039/c4sc03141e
  184. W. Rehman, R.L. Milot, G.E. Eperon, C. Wehrenfennig, J.L. Boland et al., Charge-carrier dynamics and mobilities in formamidinium lead mixed-halide perovskites. Adv. Mater. 27(48), 7938–7944 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1002/adma.201502969
  185. R.E. Beal, D.J. Slotcavage, T. Leijtens, A.R. Bowring, R.A. Belisle et al., Cesium lead halide perovskites with improved stability for tandem solar cells. J. Phys. Chem. Lett. 7(5), 746–751 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.jpclett.6b00002
  186. S. Draguta, O. Sharia, S.J. Yoon, M.C. Brennan, Y.V. Morozov et al., Rationalizing the light-induced phase separation of mixed halide organic–inorganic perovskites. Nat. Commun. 8, 200 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-017-00284-2
  187. L. Ye, J. Wu, S. Catalán-Gómez, L. Yuan, R. Sun et al., Superoxide radical derived metal-free spiro-OMeTAD for highly stable perovskite solar cells. Nat. Commun. 15, 7889 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-024-52199-4
  188. J. Li, Q. Dong, N. Li, L. Wang, Direct evidence of ion diffusion for the silver-electrode-induced thermal degradation of inverted perovskite solar cells. Adv. Energy Mater. 7(14), 1602922 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1002/aenm.201602922
  189. P. Chen, Y. Xiao, J. Hu, S. Li, D. Luo et al., Multifunctional ytterbium oxide buffer for perovskite solar cells. Nature 625(7995), 516–522 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-023-06892-x
  190. C.-T. Lin, J. Ngiam, B. Xu, Y.-H. Chang, T. Du et al., Enhancing the operational stability of unencapsulated perovskite solar cells through Cu–Ag bilayer electrode incorporation. J. Mater. Chem. A 8(17), 8684–8691 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1039/d0ta01606c
  191. L. Cattin, G. Louarn, M. Morsli, J.C. Bernède, Semi-transparent organic photovoltaic cells with dielectric/metal/dielectric top electrode: influence of the metal on their performances. Nanomaterials 11(2), 393 (2021). https://doi.org/10.3390/nano11020393
  192. W. Ji, R. Ma, S. Li, H. Sun, Y. Li et al., High performance perovskite solar cells with sputtered niobium-doped indium tin oxide transparent electrodes. Appl. Surf. Sci. 713, 164366 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apsusc.2025.164366
  193. R. Garg, S. Gonuguntla, S. Sk, M.S. Iqbal, A.O. Dada et al., Sputtering thin films: Materials, applications, challenges and future directions. Adv. Colloid Interface Sci. 330, 103203 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cis.2024.103203
  194. N. Zhang, J. Sun, J. Sheng, W. Yang, X. Xue et al., Ultrathin chromium oxide buffer layer by reactive thermal deposition for high-performance semitransparent perovskite solar cells. Mater. Today Energy 35, 101338 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mtener.2023.101338
  195. S. Apergi, C. Koch, G. Brocks, S. Olthof, S. Tao, Decomposition of organic perovskite precursors on MoO3: role of halogen and surface defects. ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 14(30), 34208–34219 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1021/acsami.1c20847
  196. L. Yao, B. Chen, Z. Li, W. Wang, J. Zhuang et al., Atomic layer deposited tin oxide buffer layer via layer-by-layer growth for efficient semitransparent perovskite solar cells. Small 21(47), e02206 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1002/smll.202502206
  197. K.P.S. Zanoni, A. Paliwal, M.A. Hernández-Fenollosa, P.-A. Repecaud, M. Morales-Masis et al., ITO top-electrodes via industrial-scale PLD for efficient buffer-layer-free semitransparent perovskite solar cells. Adv. Mater. Technol. 7(10), 2101747 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1002/admt.202101747
  198. A.J. Bett, K.M. Winkler, M. Bivour, L. Cojocaru, Ö.Ş Kabakli et al., Semi-transparent perovskite solar cells with ITO directly sputtered on spiro-OMeTAD for tandem applications. ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 11(49), 45796–45804 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1021/acsami.9b17241
  199. Y. Smirnov, G. Nigmetova, A. Ng, Advances in top transparent electrodes by physical vapor deposition for buffer layer-free semitransparent perovskite solar cells. Sol. RRL 8(17), 2400354 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1002/solr.202400354
  200. M.F. Mohamad Noh, N.A. Arzaee, I.N. Nawas Mumthas, A. Aadenan, F.H. Saifuddin et al., Superiority of two-step deposition over one-step deposition for perovskite solar cells processed in high humidity atmosphere. Opt. Mater. 118, 111288 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.optmat.2021.111288
  201. M. Casareto, S. Penukula, W. Nie, N. Rolston, Hole-transport layer-dependent degradation mechanisms in perovskite solar modules. EES Sol. (2026). https://doi.org/10.1039/d5el00083a
  202. Y. Liu, T. Ma, C. Wang, Z. Yang, Y. Zhao et al., Synergistic immobilization of ions in mixed tin-lead and all-perovskite tandem solar cells. Nat. Commun. 16, 3477 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-025-58810-6
  203. T. Liu, Z. Ren, Y. Liu, Y. Zhang, J. Liang et al., Efficient perovskite solar modules enabled by a UV-stable and high-conductivity hole transport material. Sci. Adv. 11(22), eadu3493 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.adu3493
  204. S. Tan, C. Li, C. Peng, W. Yan, H. Bu et al., Sustainable thermal regulation improves stability and efficiency in all-perovskite tandem solar cells. Nat. Commun. 15, 4136 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-024-48552-2
  205. Z. Cheng, M. Zhang, Y. Zhang, W. Qi, Z. Wang et al., Stable wide-bandgap perovskite solar cells for tandem applications. Nano Energy 127, 109708 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nanoen.2024.109708
  206. S. Ma, G. Yuan, Y. Zhang, N. Yang, Y. Li et al., Development of encapsulation strategies towards the commercialization of perovskite solar cells. Energy Environ. Sci. 15(1), 13–55 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1039/d1ee02882k
  207. B.L. Allsopp, R. Orman, S.R. Johnson, I. Baistow, G. Sanderson et al., Towards improved cover glasses for photovoltaic devices. Prog. Photovolt. Res. Appl. 28(11), 1187–1206 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1002/pip.3334
  208. Y. Wang, I. Ahmad, T. Leung, J. Lin, W. Chen et al., Encapsulation and stability testing of perovskite solar cells for real life applications. ACS Mater. Au 2(3), 215–236 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1021/acsmaterialsau.1c00045
  209. K. Aitola, G. Gava Sonai, M. Markkanen, J. Jaqueline Kaschuk, X. Hou et al., Encapsulation of commercial and emerging solar cells with focus on perovskite solar cells. Sol. Energy 237, 264–283 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.solener.2022.03.060
  210. G. Jeong, D. Koo, J.-H. Woo, Y. Choi, E. Son et al., Highly efficient self-encapsulated flexible semitransparent perovskite solar cells via bifacial cation exchange. ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 14(29), 33297–33305 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1021/acsami.2c08023
  211. D. Sayah, T.H. Ghaddar, Copper-based aqueous dye-sensitized solar cell: seeking a sustainable and long-term stable device. ACS Sustain. Chem. Eng. 12(16), 6424–6432 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1021/acssuschemeng.4c00909
  212. J. Roger, L.K. Schorn, M. Heydarian, A. Farag, T. Feeney et al., Laminated monolithic perovskite/silicon tandem photovoltaics. Adv. Energy Mater. 12(27), 2200961 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1002/aenm.202200961
  213. G.E. Eperon, M.T. Hörantner, H.J. Snaith, Metal halide perovskite tandem and multiple-junction photovoltaics. Nat. Rev. Chem. 1(12), 95 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41570-017-0095
  214. I.M. Peters, C.D. Rodríguez Gallegos, L. Lüer, J.A. Hauch, C.J. Brabec, Practical limits of multijunction solar cells. Prog. Photovolt. Res. Appl. 31(10), 1006–1015 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1002/pip.3705
  215. Z. Fang, B. Deng, Y. Jin, L. Yang, L. Chen et al., Surface reconstruction of wide-bandgap perovskites enables efficient perovskite/silicon tandem solar cells. Nat. Commun. 15, 10554 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-024-54925-4
  216. S. Wang, W. Li, C. Yu, W. Shi, Q. Kang et al., Flexible perovskite/silicon tandem solar cells with efficiency. Nature 649(8095), 59–64 (2026). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-025-09849-4
  217. L. Liu, H. Xiao, K. Jin, Z. Xiao, X. Du et al., 4-terminal inorganic perovskite/organic tandem solar cells offer 22% efficiency. Nano-Micro Lett. 15(1), 23 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/s40820-022-00995-2
  218. E.Q. Han, J.-H. Yun, I. Maeng, T. Qiu, Y. Zhang et al., Efficient bifacial semi-transparent perovskite solar cells via a dimethylformamide-free solvent and bandgap engineering strategy. Nano Energy 131, 110136 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nanoen.2024.110136
  219. H. Shishido, R. Sato, D. Ieki, G. Matsuo, K. Saito et al., High-efficiency perovskite/silicon tandem solar cells with flexibility. Sol. RRL 9(11), 2400899 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1002/solr.202400899
  220. F. Xu, J. Liu, L. Xu, A. Razzaq, X. Zhang et al., Four-terminal perovskite/perovskite/silicon triple-junction tandem solar cells with over 30% power conversion efficiency. ACS Energy Lett. 9(7), 3501–3504 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1021/acsenergylett.4c01292
  221. Z. Wang, X. Zhu, S. Zuo, M. Chen, C. Zhang et al., 27%-efficiency four-terminal perovskite/silicon tandem solar cells by sandwiched gold nanomesh. Adv. Funct. Mater. 30(4), 1908298 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1002/adfm.201908298
  222. J.J. Cordell, M. Woodhouse, E.L. Warren, Technoeconomic analysis of perovskite/silicon tandem solar modules. Joule 9(2), 101781 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.joule.2024.10.013
  223. P.-H. Lee, T.-T. Wu, C.-F. Li, D. Glowienka, Y.-X. Huang et al., Featuring semitransparent p–i–n perovskite solar cells for high-efficiency four-terminal/silicon tandem solar cells. Sol. RRL 6(4), 2100891 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1002/solr.202100891
  224. M. Vasilopoulou, D. Huang, J. Gong, F. Li, H. Zhang et al., Tandem takeoff: powering tomorrow with industrial-grade perovskite/silicon solar cells. Adv. Energy Mater. 16(5), e04478 (2026). https://doi.org/10.1002/aenm.202504478
  225. L. Dai, S. Li, Y. Hu, J. Huang, Z. Liu et al., Three-terminal monolithic perovskite/silicon tandem solar cell exceeding 29% power conversion efficiency. ACS Energy Lett. 8(9), 3839–3842 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1021/acsenergylett.3c01347
  226. J. Liu, Y. He, L. Ding, H. Zhang, Q. Li et al., Perovskite/silicon tandem solar cells with bilayer interface passivation. Nature 635(8039), 596–603 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-024-07997-7
  227. J. Zheng, C. Xue, G. Wang, M.A. Mahmud, Z. Sun et al., Efficient flexible monolithic perovskite–CIGS tandem solar cell on conductive steel substrate. ACS Energy Lett. 9(4), 1545–1547 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1021/acsenergylett.4c00432
  228. J. Lim, N.-G. Park, S. Il Seok, M. Saliba, All-perovskite tandem solar cells: from fundamentals to technological progress. Energy Environ. Sci. 17(13), 4390–4425 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1039/d3ee03638c
  229. K.O. Brinkmann, P. Wang, F. Lang, W. Li, X. Guo et al., Perovskite–organic tandem solar cells. Nat. Rev. Mater. 9(3), 202–217 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41578-023-00642-1
  230. M. Li, J. Yan, X. Zhao, T. Ma, A. Zhang et al., Synergistic enhancement of efficient perovskite/quantum dot tandem solar cells based on transparent electrode and band alignment engineering. Adv. Energy Mater. 14(23), 2400219 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1002/aenm.202400219
  231. T. Kinoshita, K. Nonomura, N. Joong Jeon, F. Giordano, A. Abate et al., Spectral splitting photovoltaics using perovskite and wideband dye-sensitized solar cells. Nat. Commun. 6, 8834 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1038/ncomms9834
  232. A. Paul, A. Singha, K. Hossain, S. Gupta, M. Misra et al., 4-T CdTe/perovskite thin film tandem solar cells with efficiency >24%. ACS Energy Lett. 9(6), 3019–3026 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1021/acsenergylett.4c01118
  233. L. Duan, X. Cui, C. Xu, Z. Chen, J. Zheng, Monolithic perovskite/perovskite/silicon triple-junction solar cells: fundamentals, progress, and prospects. Nano-Micro Lett. 18(1), 8 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1007/s40820-025-01836-8
  234. D. Keiner, L. Walter, D. Bogdanov, I.M. Peters, C. Breyer, Assessing the impact of bifacial solar photovoltaics on future power systems based on capacity-density-optimised power plant yield modelling. Sol. Energy 295, 113543 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.solener.2025.113543
  235. H. Wu, Z. Wang, J. Ma, M. Cai, X. Xu et al., Initializing compression stress to stabilize the phase homogeneity in bifacial semitransparent perovskite solar cells. Adv. Energy Mater. 14(48), 2402595 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1002/aenm.202402595
  236. S. Feroze, A. Distler, L. Dong, M. Wagner, I.A. Channa et al., Long term outdoor performance evaluation of printed semitransparent organic photovoltaic modules for BIPV/BAPV applications. Energy Environ. Sci. 18(2), 674–688 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1039/d4ee04036h
  237. J. Rana, R. Hasan, H.R. Sobuz, V.W.Y. Tam, Impact assessment of window to wall ratio on energy consumption of an office building of subtropical monsoon climatic country Bangladesh. Int. J. Constr. Manag. 22(13), 2528–2553 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1080/15623599.2020.1808561
  238. F.-A. Chi, Y. Wang, R. Wang, G. Li, C. Peng, An investigation of optimal window-to-wall ratio based on changes in building orientations for traditional dwellings. Sol. Energy 195, 64–81 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.solener.2019.11.033
  239. F. Goia, Search for the optimal window-to-wall ratio in office buildings in different European climates and the implications on total energy saving potential. Sol. Energy 132, 467–492 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.solener.2016.03.031
  240. C. Luo, X. Su, S. Ma, X. Chen, J. Ji et al., Energy analysis of ventilated building-integrated semi-flexible crystalline silicon photovoltaic system under warm weather conditions. Renew. Energy 239, 122147 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2024.122147
  241. T. Du, W. Xu, S. Xu, S.R. Ratnasingham, C.-T. Lin et al., Light-intensity and thickness dependent efficiency of planar perovskite solar cells: charge recombination versus extraction. J. Mater. Chem. C 8(36), 12648–12655 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1039/d0tc03390a
  242. D. Glowienka, Y. Galagan, Light intensity analysis of photovoltaic parameters for perovskite solar cells. Adv. Mater. 34(2), 2105920 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1002/adma.202105920
  243. S. Kinge, L.H. Slooff, M. Heinrich, R. Christian, Perovskite solar cells for transportation alliance for solar mobility (ASOM) white paper. Sol. Energy Mater. Sol. Cells 281, 113280 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.solmat.2024.113280
  244. M.B. Faheem, B. Khan, C. Feng, S.B. Ahmed, J. Jiang et al., Synergistic approach toward erbium-passivated triple-anion organic-free perovskite solar cells with excellent performance for agrivoltaics application. ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 14(5), 6894–6905 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1021/acsami.1c23476
  245. C. Spampinato, S. Valastro, G. Calogero, E. Smecca, G. Mannino et al., Improved radicchio seedling growth under CsPbI3 perovskite rooftop in a laboratory-scale greenhouse for Agrivoltaics application. Nat. Commun. 16, 2190 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-025-56227-9
  246. S. Caretto, A. De Paolis, A. Paradiso, F. Milano, B. Olivieri et al., Influence of lead-free perovskite panels on indoor growth of Solanum lycopersicum L. and Artemisia annua L. plants. Plants 14(20), 3195 (2025). https://doi.org/10.3390/plants14203195
  247. Department of Standards Malaysia, Energy efficiency and use of renewable energy for non-residential buildings: Code of practice (Second revision) (Malaysian Standard, 2014). http://epsmg.jkr.gov.my/images/6/68/MS_1525_2014_fullpdf.pdf. Accessed 4 Jan 2026
  248. Z. Zhou, Z. Yuan, Z. Yin, Q. Xue, N. Li et al., Progress of semitransparent emerging photovoltaics for building integrated applications. Green Energy Environ. 9(6), 992–1015 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gee.2023.05.006
  249. T.M. Koh, H. Wang, Y.F. Ng, A. Bruno, S. Mhaisalkar et al., Halide perovskite solar cells for building integrated photovoltaics: transforming building façades into power generators. Adv. Mater. 34(25), 2104661 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1002/adma.202104661
  250. N.R. Pochont, R. Sekhar Y, Recent trends in photovoltaic technologies for sustainable transportation in passenger vehicles: A review. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 181, 113317 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2023.113317
  251. L. San José, R. Moruno, R. Núñez, R. Herrero, J. Macías et al., Performance evaluation of MPPT algorithm of VIPV systems in realistic urban routes using image processing. Sol. Energy Mater. Sol. Cells 276, 113061 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.solmat.2024.113061
  252. B. Yang, M. Zhang, G. Qiao, H. Zhang, Perovskite solar cells: emerging photovoltaic technology for achieving net-zero emission agrivoltaics ecosystem. Sol. RRL 7(13), 2300217 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1002/solr.202300217
  253. S.Y. Kim, N. Rayes, A.R. Kemanian, E.D. Gomez, N.Y. Doumon, Semitransparent organic and perovskite photovoltaics for agrivoltaic applications. Energy Adv. 4(1), 37–54 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1039/d4ya00492b
  254. Tropox, in Perovskite Solar Unlocks New Agrivoltaic Possibilities. Promate Electronics Leads the Green Transformation (Tropox, 2024). https://oasys.tropox.com/en/news-20241001e/. Accessed 4 Jan 2026
  255. S.B. Shivarudraiah, N. Tewari, M. Ng, C.H.A. Li, D. Chen et al., Optically clear films of formamidinium lead bromide perovskite for wide-band-gap, solution-processed, semitransparent solar cells. ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 13(31), 37223–37230 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1021/acsami.1c10657
  256. E. Pourshaban, A. Banerjee, A. Deshpande, C. Ghosh, M.U. Karkhanis et al., Flexible and semi-transparent silicon solar cells as a power supply to smart contact lenses. ACS Appl. Electron. Mater. 4(8), 4016–4022 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1021/acsaelm.2c00665
  257. W. Yang, J. Park, H.-C. Kwon, O.S. Hutter, L.J. Phillips et al., Solar water splitting exceeding 10% efficiency via low-cost Sb2Se3 photocathodes coupled with semitransparent perovskite photovoltaics. Energy Environ. Sci. 13(11), 4362–4370 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1039/d0ee02959a
  258. M. Wang, Z. Wan, Z. Li, C. Jia, W. Zhang et al., Full spectrum solar hydrogen production by tandems of perovskite solar cells and photothermal enhanced electrocatalysts. Chem. Eng. J. 460, 141702 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2023.141702
  259. N.B. Correa Guerrero, Z. Guo, N. Shibayama, A.K. Jena, T. Miyasaka, A semitransparent silver–bismuth iodide solar cell with Voc above 0.8 V for indoor photovoltaics. ACS Appl. Energy Mater. 6(20), 10274–10284 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1021/acsaem.3c00223
  260. Z. Skafi, J. Xu, V. Mottaghitalab, L. Mivehi, B. Taheri et al., Highly efficient flexible perovskite solar cells on polyethylene terephthalate films via dual halide and low-dimensional interface engineering for indoor photovoltaics. Sol. RRL 7(20), 2300324 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1002/solr.202300324
  261. M.F. Mohamad Noh, N.A. Arzaee, J. Safaei, S.H. Norisham, W.A.S. Wan Razali et al., Large area ternary TiO2/CdS/g-C3N4 photoanode for hydrogen evolution by photoelectrochemical water splitting. Renew. Energy 256, 124157 (2026). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2025.124157
  262. A. Vilanova, P. Dias, T. Lopes, A. Mendes, The route for commercial photoelectrochemical water splitting: a review of large-area devices and key upscaling challenges. Chem. Soc. Rev. 53(5), 2388–2434 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1039/d1cs01069g
  263. S.K. Karuturi, H. Shen, A. Sharma, F.J. Beck, P. Varadhan et al., Over 17% efficiency stand-alone solar water splitting enabled by perovskite-silicon tandem absorbers. Adv. Energy Mater. 10(28), 2000772 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1002/aenm.202000772
  264. T. Zhang, X. Guan, Z. Zhang, B. Wang, J. Qu et al., Photothermal catalytic hydrogen production coupled with thermoelectric waste heat utilization and thermal energy storage for continuous power generation. Nano Energy 121, 109273 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nanoen.2024.109273
  265. N. Bhati, P.J. Dyson, M.K. Nazeeruddin, F. Maréchal, Techno-economic analysis framework for perovskite solar module production at various manufacturing capacities. Renew. Energy 256, 123752 (2026). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2025.123752
  266. C. Messmer, B.S. Goraya, S. Nold, P.S.C. Schulze, V. Sittinger et al., The race for the best silicon bottom cell: Efficiency and cost evaluation of perovskite–silicon tandem solar cells. Prog. Photovolt. Res. Appl. 29(7), 744–759 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1002/pip.3372
  267. L. Wang, H. Zai, Y. Duan, G. Liu, X. Niu et al., Cost analysis of perovskite/Cu(In, Ga)Se2 tandem photovoltaic with module replacement. ACS Energy Lett. 7(6), 1920–1925 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1021/acsenergylett.2c00886
  268. H. Liang, J. Feng, C.D. Rodríguez-Gallegos, M. Krause, X. Wang et al., 29.9%-efficient, commercially viable perovskite/CuInSe2 thin-film tandem solar cells. Joule 7(12), 2859–2872 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.joule.2023.10.007
  269. Y. Hu, H. Lv, S. Chen, Y. Han, X. Xie, Visual and energy optimization of semi-transparent perovskite photovoltaic glass curtain walls in buildings. J. Build. Eng. 111, 113163 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jobe.2025.113163
  270. Y. Liu, Z. Zhang, T. Wu, W. Xiang, Z. Qin et al., Cost effectivities analysis of perovskite solar cells: will it outperform crystalline silicon ones? Nano-Micro Lett. 17(1), 219 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1007/s40820-025-01744-x
  271. M. De Bastiani, V. Larini, R. Montecucco, G. Grancini, The levelized cost of electricity from perovskite photovoltaics. Energy Environ. Sci. 16(2), 421–429 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1039/d2ee03136a
  272. F. Gota, M. Langenhorst, R. Schmager, J. Lehr, U.W. Paetzold, Energy yield advantages of three-terminal perovskite-silicon tandem photovoltaics. Joule 4(11), 2387–2403 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.joule.2020.08.021
  273. J. Qian, M. Ernst, N. Wu, A. Blakers, Impact of perovskite solar cell degradation on the lifetime energy yield and economic viability of perovs
Read More
Author biographies are not available.
Download this PDF file
PDF